AND  NAVAL 
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C.A.C.,  U.S.  Army 


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MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


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MILITARY   AND 
NAVAL  AMERICA 


BY 

HARRISON  S.  KERRICK 

CAPTAIN,  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS,  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 

DIVISION  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS, 
PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  1901 

GOLD  MEDALIST,  1913;    SILVER  MEDALIST,  1908, 
THE  MILITARY  SERVICE  INSTITUTION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

EDMUND  J.  JAMES,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

PBE8IDENT  tTNIVERSITT  OF  ILLINOIS 


ILLUSTRATED 


GARDEN  CITY  NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 
1916 


COPYRIGHT  1916 

HARRISON     S.     KERRICK 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED,  INCLUDING  THAT 
OF  TRANSLATION  INTO  FOREIGN  LAN- 
GUAGES. INCLUDING  THE  SCANDINAVIAN 


DEDICATION 

TO  YOUNG  AMERICA  NOW  ATTAINING  MAJORITY  AND 
SUFFRAGE,  TO  WHOM  OLDER  AMERICA  MUST  SOON 
SHIFT  THE  BURDEN  AND  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  SAFE- 
GUARDING THE  PEACE  AND  INTEGRITY  OF  OUR 
REPUBLIC  AND  UPHOLDING  ITS  FLAG  IN  OUR  INSULAR 
POSSESSIONS,  THIS  VOLUME  IS  EARNESTLY  DEDICATED 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

AS  FAR  as  practical,  the  language  of  Army  and 
Navy  regulations,  manuals,  official  and  semi-official 
reports  and  publications  has  been  used  in  order  that 
this  volume  may  be  considered  a  compendium  of  trust- 
worthy military  and  naval  information  of  educational 
value  and  interest  to  students,  teachers,  and  the  gen- 
eral public. 

The  International  Military  Digest,  the  Service  Jour- 
nals, and  Service  Weeklies  were  sources  of  current  mili- 
tary information. 

To  all  who  have  assisted  I  hereby  acknowledge  ap- 
preciation and  express  thanks. 

THE  AUTHOR. 
Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 
Sept.  1,  1916. 


FOREWORD 

NATIONS  come  and  go.     Mankind  goes  on  forever. 

We  are  no  longer  a  provincial  people. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine,  Open  Door  in  China,  Exclu- 
sion of  Orientals,  Admission  of  Europeans,  Our  Insular 
Possessions,  Panama  Canal,  Foreign  Commerce  and 
Relations  make  our  Nation  continental,  hemispheric — 
world-wide  in  its  functions  and  obligations. 

We  presume  to  lead  the  world  toward  Universal  Peace, 
and  to  personify  Neutrality  and  Humanity. 

But  when  Diplomacy  fails  the  only  arbiter  is  armed 
physical  force — War. 

Can  our  treasureland  of  peace  and  plenty  attain  and 
maintain  its  aspirations?  Is  it  fitted  to  survive?  Each 
generation  must  answer  anew. 

Let  us  pause,  in  our  characteristic  Americanism,  and 
review  the  National  Defense,  remembering  that  "Eternal 
Vigilance  is  (still)  the  price  of  Liberty,"  and  that  in  the 
last  analysis,  the  security  of  our  homes,  institutions, 
and  constitution  is  contingent  upon  adequate  Military 
and  Naval  Power. 

This  volume  sheds  light  upon  Military  and  Naval 
America,  and  will  better  acquaint  Americans  with  those 
citizens  who  consecrate  their  lives  to  Safeguarding 
this  Nation: 

Our  Soldiers,  Sailors,  Marines,  and  Coast  Guard; 

Our  Army  and  Navy,  the  Bulwark  of  the  Republic. 


Vll 


THE  COUNSELOR 

Friendship  is  a  poor  adviser;  politicians  deep  and  wise 
Many  times  are  forced  to  learn  the  lesson  from  their 

enemies; 

Diligent  and  wary  conduct  is  the  method  soon  or  late 
Which  an  adversary  teaches;  whilst  a  friend  or  intimate 
Trains  us  on  to  sloth  and  ease,  to  ready  confidence,  to 

rest 

In  careless  acquiescence;  to  believe  and  hope  the  best. 
Look  on  earth!  Behold  the  nations,  all  in  emulation 

vying. 

Active  all,  with  busy  science  engineering,  fortifying; 
To  defend  their  hearths  and  homes,  with  patriotic  in- 
dustry. 

Fencing  every  city  roufld  with  massive  walls  of  masonry, 
Tactical  devices  old  they  modify  with  new  design; 
Arms  defensive  and  offensive  to  perfection  they  refine; 
Galleys  are  equipped  and  armed,  and  armies  trained  to 

discipline. 
Look  to  life,  in  every  part;  in  all  they  practice,  all  they 

know 
Every  nation  has  derived  its  best  instruction  from  the 

foe. 

—From    the    Greek,    400    B.    C. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION  BY  DR.  EDMUND  J.  JAMES 


PAGE 

xix 


I.    A  STATEMENT  OF  A  PROPER  MILITARY  POL- 
ICY FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  3 

II.    THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 26 

III.  THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  AND  THE  SECRE- 

TARY OF  WAR S3 

IV.  THE  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS:  THE  CHIEF  OF 

STAFF 42 

V.    THE  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT  .  48 
VI.    THE  INSPECTOR  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT      .  55 
VII.    THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL'S  DEPART- 
MENT      58 

VIII.    THE  QUARTERMASTER  Co?  ?PS 62 

IX.    THE  MEDICAL  CORPS 67 

X.    THE  CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS 79 

XI.    THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT     ....  90 

XII.     THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 97 

XIII.  THE  BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS    .      .      .  110 

XIV.  THE  INFANTRY  . 123 

XV.    THE  CAVALRY 132 

XVI.    THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY 145 

XVII.    THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS      ....  155 

XVIII.     THE  SUBMARINE  DEFENSE  OF  HARBORS  .      .  167 
XIX.    THE  MILITIA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE 

NATIONAL  GUARD  173 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XX.    THE   WAR   COLLEGE   AND   ARMY   SERVICE 

SCHOOLS    .      .      .      .     .     .     .     .     .     .  180 

XXI.    THE  UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY  .      .  185 
XXII.     MILITARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  CIVIL  INSTITU- 
TIONS . 198 

XXni.    MILITARY  CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION   .     .     .  203 

XXIV.    THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY 211 

XXV.    THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT  AND  THE  SECRE- 
TARY OF  THE  NAVY     .......  223 

XXVI.     THE  CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  OPERATIONS     .      .      .  229 

XXVII.     THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  THE  NAVY    .      .      .  235 

XXVIII.     THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL  OF  THE  NAVY  243 

XXIX.     THE  BUREAU  OF  YARDS  AND  DOCKS    .      .      .  246 

XXX.     THE  BUREAU  OF  NAVIGATION  .      .      .     .     .  249 

XXXI.    THE  BUREAU  OF  ORDNANCE  .-.     .     .     .     .  255 

XXXII.    THE  BUREAU  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR  259 

XXXIII.  THE  BUREAU  OF  STEAM  ENGINEERING     .      .  263 

XXXIV.  THE  BUREAU  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  ACCOUNTS     .  266 
XXXV.    THE  BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY     .  274 

XXXVI.    THE  NAVAL  MILITIA     .     .     *,  ..     ...  282 

XXXVII.    THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY     .     .  289 

XXXVIII.     WARSHIPS .296 

XXXIX.    THE  UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS      .      .  311 

XL.     THE  UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD  .     .     .  320 
XLL    RIFLE  PRACTICE.       THE  NATIONAL  RIFLE 

ASSOCIATION  OF  AMERICA 326 

XLII.    THE  AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS    .     .  338 

XLIII.    THE  BOY  Scours  OF  AMERICA      ....  347 

XLIV.     GARRISON  LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  .     .  361 
XLV.    SAFETY  FIRST  "  FOR  THE  NATION  "  THROUGH 
UNIVERSAL  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  TRAIN- 
ING OF  YOUNG  AMERICA  .     .     .     .     .     .  365 

XLVI.    OUR  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES  vs. 

OUR  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  POWER   .  370 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

FLAG  DAY  PROCLAMATION  OF  PRESIDENT  WILSON  .  .  383 
GLOSSARY  OF  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  TERMS  ....  385 
INDEX  391 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  HISTORICAL  MAP  OF  MILITARY  AND 
NAVAL  AMERICA.  TABLES  OF  ORGANIZATION  AND  PAY, 
STRENGTH,  DISPOSITION  AND  TACTICAL  UNITS  OF  THE 
ARMY  AND  NATIONAL  GUARD.  PAY  TABLES  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  NAVY  ....  In  pocket  inside  cover 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

HALF-TONES 
U.  S.  Cavalryman.     Packed  saddle,  full  equipment  Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Road  building  in  Alaska 40 

Gatun  upper  locks,  west  chamber,  Canal  Zone       ...  40 

New  disciplinary  barracks.     Old  military  prison    ...  41 

Wings  3-6-7  have  doorless  cells          41 

Wings  3-4-5 41 

Auditorium 41 

Buzzacott  army  rolling  kitchen          64 

The  United  States  Army's  present  system  of  camp  cooking  64 

Enlisted  man,  Medical  Corps,  in  heavy  marching  order  65 

Walter  Reed  General  Hospital,  Washington,  D.  C.      .      .  80 
Major  Russell,  M.  C.,  inoculating  civilians  against  typhoid 

fever 80 

Pack  section,  Engineer  Company 81 

Company  of  engineers  erecting  temporary  mess  shelter    .  81 
Engineer  troops  telephoning  and  using  observation  instru- 
ments in  the  field 81 

Drill.     Installing  field  searchlight 84 

Pile  driver  improvised  with  pontoon  material  mounted  on 

pontoon  boats  by  Engineer  troops 84 

New  type  6-inch  howitzer 85 

Fragmentation  of  exploded  3-inch  common  steel  shell       .  92 

Ordnance  Department  16-inch  rifle         92 

Wire  section  of  a  field  company         93 

Signaling  by  heliograph 93 

Pack  radio  set   .  93 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACING  PAGE 

Field  Company  Signal  Corps  on  the  march  .  .  .  .  116 

Semaphoring  .  • 116 

Wigwagging  ...,., 116 

Signal  Corps  class  in  telegraphy 116 

Infantryman  in  heavy  marching  order 117 

The  new  Infantry  equipment  in  detail 117 

Infantry  bugler  in  heavy  marching  equipment  and  with 

empty  water  bag  on  top  ....  - 124 

Officers  cross-country  riding  ..........  125 

How  old  is  Dobbins? 125 

A  veterinarian  searching  for  the  reason  "why"  .  .  .  125 

Negotiating  a  90°  hill .  125 

Cavalry  troops,  New  York  Military  Academy  .  .  .  128 

Cavalry  drill  on  the  Mexican  border 129 

Superior  equitation  .  .  .  . 129 

U.  S.  Field  Artillery  on  the  march ,  144 

Field  Artillery  "bracketing  the  target" 144 

Target  practice.  Field  Artillery  using  observing  mast  .  144 

"Fire."  Gun  at  full  recoil ..145 

Field  Artillery  in  position  at  edge  of  woods       ....  145 

Gun  and  caisson  "ready"        .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .      .  145 

U.  S.  Army  3-inch  field  gun,  used  against  aircraft       .      .  148 

U.  S.  Army  6-inch  howitzer    .      .      .     ....      ...      .  148 

Coast  Artillery  Corps  indoor  war  game        .      .      ;     ;      .  149 

Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va.    .....  156 

Corner  of  operating  room,  radio  section       .      .      .      , .    .•  156 

Classes  in  the  Enlisted  Men's  School      .     ,     .      .     .      .  156 

1,046-pound  projectiles,  12-inch  mortars,  and  gun  caught 

by  camera  .  .  ,,  .  .  .  .  ,  .  .  .  f  .  162 

12-inch  breech-loading  rifle,  model,  1900  .  .  ,  ;  .  163 

Sizes  of  mine  cases  .  .  ...  r  .  .  .  .  ,  170 

Mine  and  anchor  ready  for  command  "Let  Go"  .  .  170 
A  group  of  mines,  cable,  and  anchors  ready  for  mine 

planter     .     ... 170 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 

FACING  PAGE 

This  submarine  mine  was  exploded  near  the  surface  of  the 

water * 171 

"  Mushroom"  submarine  mine  explosion 171 

Typical  mine  explosion 171 

Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C 180 

Army   Service    Schools    and   library,  Ft.    Leavenworth, 

Kansas 180 

Cadet  Corps  and  barracks,  New  Mexico  Military  Institute  180 

Types  of  mud  ovens  for  baking  bread  in  the  field        .      .  181 

Field  range  and  equipment  for  one  company    ....  181 

Field  bakery 181 

New  arrivals  at  West  Point 184 

Fifteen  minutes  later 184 

Summer  camp 184 

Battalion  parade,  U.  S.  M.  A 184 

"The  simple  life"  at  West  Point 185 

Building  barrel  raft 185 

Indoor  class  in  engineering •     .  190 

Physical  culture 190 

University  of  Minnesota  battery  of  field  artillery  .      .      .  191 

Cornell  University  cadets  on  campus  for  annual  inspection  191 

Cadet  Corps,  University  of  California 191 

A  &  M  College  cadets,  Texas  University 206 

Staff  Officers,  St.  John's  College,  Annapolis,  Maryland     .  206 

Western  Military  Academy,  Alton,  Illinois        ....  207 

Battalion  of  cadets,  Culver  Military  Academy       .      .      .  207 
White  undress  and  blue  undress  uniform  of  sailors,  U.  S. 

Navy 212 

Types  of  uniforms  of  enlisted  men,  U.  S.  Navy      .      .      .  213 
Service  dress  uniform  of  Lieutenant,  Junior  Grade,  U.  S. 

Navy 216 

Insignia  of  rank  and  grade,  U.  S.  Navy  on  sleeve        .      .  217 

Kitchen  and  bakery,  Naval  Training  Station    ....  222 

Gymnasium,  Naval  Training  Station,  Newport,  R.  I.       .  222 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING    PAGE 

Rating  badges.     Blue.    U.  S.  Navy  enlisted  men       .     .  223 

Cocked  hat,  caps,  and  cap  device  U.  S.  Navy  ....  228 

Trophy  for  excellence  in  Naval  gunnery      .      .      .      .      ;  229 

Chevrons  of  enlisted  men,  U.  S.  Navy  ...     .      .      .  232 

Reconnaissance  type,  Curtis  Biplane,  160  H.P.      .      .      .  233 

Martin  tractor,  125  H.P.,  dual  control  for  training  student 

aviators , 233 

U.  S.  Army  dual  control  Curtis  flying  boat,  passenger  and 

pilot 238 

U.  S.  Army  dual  control  Martin  model  S  hydroaeroplane  238 
Prison  ship  Philadelphia  and  detentioners  at  artillery  and 

boat  drills 239 

Target  butts,  built  by  naval  prisoners    .      .      .      .      .      .  239 

Placing  a  13-inch  gun  on  Battleship  Indiana    ....  246 

Dry  dock,  Navy  Yard,  New  York    .......  246 

Lighthouse  tenders  of  the  Treasury  Department  at  out- 
break of  war  will  become  mine  planters  under  the  Coast 

Artillery  Corps 247 

Floating  derrick  Hercules,  capacity  150  tons,  New  York 

Navy  Yard 247 

Navy  Yard,  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire 258 

Floating  dock  Dewey          .     . 258 

How  the  "F-4,"  suspended  from  six  pontoons,  was  towed 

into  Honolulu      .      .  .    .     .>....     .      .      .      .  259 

U.  S.  Naval  Radio  Station,  Balboa,  Canal  Zone    .     .     .  266 

Steel  towers  at  three  U.  S.  Naval  Radio  Stations  .      .      .  266 

Old  and  new  style  litters  and  litter  drill  in  the  Navy        .  267 

U.  S.  S.  Utah  in  Hudson  River 306 

U.  S.  Destroyer  Reid   ....      .      ...     .      .      .306 

U.  S.  S.  San  Francisco,  mine  layer    ; 306^ 

U.  S.  S.  Wyoming •  306^ 

U.  S.  S.  North  Dakota  .      .';.'  .     .     i    ..     . .  ..     .      .     .  312 

U.  S.  Submarine  "K-7"     ...'......     .     .      .  313 

Naval  hydroaeroplane       .     ....     .     .     .     .     *  813 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FACING  PAGE 

Naval  Aeronautical  Station,  Pensacola,  Florida     .      .      .  313 

Sergeant  of  Marines  fully  equipped  for  field  service     .      .  318 

Inspection  of  Marines  in  heavy  marching  order     .      .      .  319 
Marine    Guard,    Pekin,    China,   rendering  honors   to   a 

Chinese  dignitary 319 

Bunks  and  individual  equipment  of  U.  S.  Marines  arranged 

for  monthly  inspection 322 

U.  S.  Marines  are  quartered  in  large,  commodious  barracks  322 

The  Mohawk,  a  revenue  cutter 323 

Trophy  presented  annually  to  the  most  efficient  vessel  in 

her  class  in  naval  engineering         323 

National  Trophy  Plaque  competed  for  annually  by  Army, 
Navy,  Marine  Corps,  National  Guard,  and  Military 

colleges 326 

Sitting,  kneeling,  and  prone  firing  positions       ....  327 
U.  S.  Naval  Training  Station,  Great  Lakes,  Illinois     .      .  362 
Saturday  morning  inspection  at  the  Great  Lakes  Train- 
ing Station      362 


LINE  CUTS  IN  TEXT 

AGE 

Plan  showing  strength  of  the  three  arms  in  peace  and  in 

war 11 

Relative  peace  strength  of  Infantry  forces,  1914    ...  13 

Relative  peace  strength  of  Field  Artillery,  1914      ...  15 

Relative  peace  strength  of  Cavalry  forces,  1914     ...  17 

Flag  of  the  Secretary  of  War 37 

Punishments  awarded  for  violations  of  regulations      .      .  53 

Guidon  of  Ambulance  Company 67 

Diagram  showing  organization  of  Engineer  troops       .       80,  81 
Typical  U.  S.  Army  firing  trench  for  a  war  strength  In- 
fantry Company  of  150  men 87 

Guidon  of  Signal  Corps  Field  Company 97 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Guidon  of  Telegraph  Company  Signal  Corps  .  .  „  ,  100 
Two-arm  Semaphore  Code  with  Hand  Flags  .  .  .  .  102 

Guidon  of  Aero  Squadron  Signal  Corps .104 

A  Typical  battery  command facing  page    156 

Mine  and  distribution  box 169 

Cadet 193 

Speed  in  knots 297 

Cross-sectional  views  of  a  first-class  battleship ....     299 

Evolution  of  armored  ships .     301 

Silhouettes  of  various  types  of  warships 304, 305 

Armor  attack  diagram facing  page    306 

Diagram  of  organization  of  American  Red  Cross  .  .  .  339 
Comparative  chart.  Signaling  systems  facing  pages  352,  353 
Boy  Scout  in  uniform 357 


INTRODUCTION 

My  friend  Captain  Kerrick  has  honored  me  with  an  invitation 
to  write  an  introduction  for  his  book  on  "Military  and  Naval 
America."  He  certainly  did  not  do  it  because  of  any  expert 
knowledge  which  I  have  in  regard  to  the  Army  and  the  Navy, 
or  of  the  way  in  which  these  two  branches  of  the  Service  should 
be  organized  or  administered,  for  I  have  had  no  experience 
which  would  justify  me  in  expressing  an  expert  opinion  on  this 
subject.  I  have,  however,  some  very  decided  ideas  as  to  the 
fundamental  basis  of  military  and  naval  power  of  a  nation  so 
long  as  there  is  any  need  for  service  of  this  kind. 

I  was  a  small  boy  when  the  great  Civil  War  broke  out,  but 
I  was  not  too  young  to  be  struck  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
boys  in  the  neighborhood  went  to  the  front  and  some  did  not; 
nor  was  I  too  small  to  ask  the  question  of  my  mother,  "Why 
did  Sam  Brown  enlist  as  a  soldier,  and  why  did  Richard  Jones 
stay  at  home? "  For  they  looked  to  me  for  all  the  world  exactly 
alike,  so  far  as  the  claims  of  the  country  upon  their  services  were 
concerned.  My  mother's  answer  was  that  Sam  Brown  was 
more  patriotic  than  Richard  Jones,  and  with  that  answer  I  had 
to  be  satisfied. 

Later  in  the  War,  when  I  was  a  little  older,  I  saw  that  some 
of  the  men  in  the  neighborhood  were  compelled  to  go  to 
war  by  law,  while  others,  seemingly  equally  strong  and  vigor- 
ous, were  excused  from  service;  and  the  whole  thing  struck  me 
as  mysterious  and  unaccountable,  for  I  had  heard  my  father 
say,  in  the  most  vigorous  terms,  that  every  youngster  who  was 
strong  enough  ought  to  enlist  to  defend  the  Union. 

After  the  waves  of  the  Civil  War  died  away  and  we  heard 
little  or  nothing  except  of  a  continuous  diminution  of  Govern- 


xx  INTRODUCTION 

ment  vessels  and  a  continuous  shrinkage  of  the  Federal  army, 
the  whole  question  of  an  army  and  a  navy  passed  out  of  my 
mind,  as  out  of  that  of  the  average  American  youngster 
who  grew  up  in  the  piping  times  of  peace  following  the  Civil 
War. 

Later,  when  as  a  young  man  I  went  to  Germany  for  the 
purposes  of  university  study,  my  attention  of  course  was  called 
to  the,  to  me,  unknown  system  of  universal  military  service. 
I  was  prejudiced  against  it,  as  every  American  naturally  is. 
I  reacted  unfavorably  to  the  sternness  and  vigor  with  which 
the  military  drill  was  carried  on.  I  resented,  as  a  thoughtless 
man  would,  the  requirement  of  military  service  from  everybody 
able  to  perform  it.  As  I  became  more  used  to  the  system  I 
began  to  study  it  as  an  economic  problem  and  as  an  element  in 
the  economic  development  of  the  country.  I  found  my  opin- 
ion upon  the  system  as  a  system  changing — mildly  for  a  time — 
but  finally  in  a  very  radical  way.  Afterward,  when  I  examined 
the  same  system  in  France,  in  Italy,  and  in  Switzerland,  I  be- 
came thoroughly  converted  to  the  principle  that  if  a  country 
needs  to  defend  itself,  that  burden  of  defense  should  rest  upon 
all  alike  and  not  merely  upon  the  small  portion  of  the  com- 
munity from  whom  the  armies  were  so  largely  recruited,  by  ap- 
peals to  their  patriotism  or  by  one  or  another  of  the  infinite  forms 
of  bulldozing  which  may  be  applied  to  secure  enlistments,  or 
by  offering  money  rewards  to  men  for  risking  their  lives. 

I  finally  became  convinced  that  if  a  nation  has  any  serious 
burden  of  military  and  naval  defense,  the  only  efficient,  eco- 
nomical and  democratic  system  is  that  of  universal  military 
service.  If  we  only  need  a  handful  of  men,  of  course,  it  is 
possible  that  a  sufficient  number  will  be  found  among  that 
element  of  young  men  in  the  community  who  see  in  a  soldier's 
life,  in  the  possibility  of  adventure,  etc.,  a  career  which  is  satis- 
factory. But  if  the  army  must  be  a  large  one,  then  some  form 
of  compulsory  military  service  must  be  introduced,  and  the 
only  really  democratic,  fair,  and  equal  one  is  that  under  which, 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

as  all  alike  profit  from  the  advantages  which  a  stable  govern- 
ment affords,  so  all  alike  shall  be  subject  to  the  burdens  of  its 
support. 

A  brief  glance  at  the  actual  course  of  events  in  the  United 
States,  as  compared  with  what  happened  in  France  and  Ger- 
many at  the  opening  of  the  Great  War  will  illustrate  what  I 
mean. 

When  the  Unionists  first  called  for  troops  in  1861  there  was 
immediate  response  on  the  part  of  the  very  best  classes  of  the 
community.  The  fellows  who  flocked  first  to  the  standard 
were  those  to  whom  the  very  highest  motives  appealed  most 
strongly,  and  when  in  this  way  the  cream  of  the  population, 
so  to  speak,  was  picked  off,  then  a  resort  was  had  to  the  pay- 
ment of  bounties.  Then  when  in  1862  the  draft  had  selected 
certain  people  by  lot,  there  was  a  sort  of  current  superstition 
that  the  lot  was  God's  way  of  determining  who  should  go. 
And  then  any  one  drafted  who  had  enough  money  to  hire  some 
poor  devil  to  take  his  place  was  permitted  to  do  so.  What  a 
repulsive  thing  it  is  to  have  a  Republic  hiring  men  to  go  out 
to  fight  for  it,  taking  all  the  risk  of  losing  their  lives  or  becom- 
ing maimed,  and  incurring  the  suffering  of  their  families  with 
all  its  countless  ramifications,  in  return  for  a  paltry  five  hundred 
or  a  thousand  dollars  offered  as  a  bounty  and  thirteen  dollars 
a  month  extra! 

When  Rome  began  to  fill  the  ranks  of  its  legions  by  the  hiring 
of  mercenary  troops,  it  had  already  begun  to  go  downhill,  and 
the  end  of  the  republic,  and  the  ultimate  end  of  the  people, 
was  just  as  certain  as  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun. 

When  the  call  for  soldiers  came  in  the  republic  of  France 
every  man  who  was  ablebodied  and  who  was  not  excused  for 
other  service  or  on  special  grounds  marched  out  in  answer  to 
the  call — rich  and  poor  alike,  university  and  non-university 
men,  ignorant  and  learned;  and  the  burden  was  distributed  in 
that  way  as  nearly  equally  as  human  brain  can  devise. 

England,  of  course,  did  the  same  thing  at  the  outbreak  of 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

the  war  as  we  did  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  viz.,  call 
for  volunteers.  And  the  thoughtful,  generous-souled,  and  the 
patriotic  answered  the  call  by  thousands.  But  when  the 
Government  wanted  tens  of  thousands,  and  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands, and  millions,  of  course,  such  an  appeal  broke  down.  The 
next  thing  was  a  good  example  of  that  strange  hypocrisy  which 
England  and  America  both  practise,  namely,  while  preserving 
the  voluntary  system  in  form  and  talking  about  a  system  of 
volunteers,  the  actual  adoption  of  such  methods  as  to  produce 
pressure,  by  the  thousand  and  one  indirect  ways  in  which  a 
community  can  force  those  who  do  not  want  to  enlist  to  do  so; 
And  I  know  of  nothing  more  pathetic  and  nothing  more  humiliat- 
ing than  the  efforts  that  were  put  forth  by  the  English  people 
to  fill  the  ranks  of  the  regiments  by  a  so-called  voluntary  system, 
except  our  own  method  of  doing  things  in  the  Civil  War.  Un- 
equal, unfair,  wasteful,  undemocratic,  are  the  words  which 
properly  describe  the  English  and  American  methods  of  raising 
so-called  volunteer  armies.  And,  of  course,  the  whole  plan 
of  a  so-called  volunteer  system  had  to  be  given  up  in  England, 
as  it  was  in  our  own  Civil  War,  and  as  it  will  be  in  every  country 
in  which  it  is  necessary  to  raise  a  large  army — an  army  com- 
posed of  any  considerable  percentage  of  the  able-bodied  males 
of  the  community. 

I  found  that  the  Swiss  had  made  a  decided  improvement  on 
the  German  system  in  the  direction  of  democracy.  The  Ger- 
man system  calls  on  everybody — the  son  of  the  Emperor  as 
well  as  the  son  of  the  poor  ditch-digger  and  the  washerwoman 
— to  perform  military  service,  and  no  pull,  political,  commercial, 
aristocratic,  governmental,  however  strong,  suffices  to  excuse 
either  in  Germany  or  France,  any  man  physically  able  to  per- 
form his  military  duty  from  falling  in  line  and  taking  his  share. 
But  if  a  man  were  excused  for  physical  reasons  in  Germany 
or  France,  he  thereby  escapes,  of  course,  a  very  important  part 
of  the  burden  of  national  defense. 

In  Switzerland  I  understand  they  have  gone  one  step  farther, 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

and  if  a  man  is  excused  from  military  service  on  the  score  of 
physical  incapacity,  he  is  required  to  pay  a  supplementary  tax, 
proportioned  according  to  his  ability  to  pay,  for  the  support  of 
the  armies  in  the  field.  When  this  scheme  of  universal  mili- 
tary service  is  once  carried  through  to  its  logical  consequences 
and  the  Government  is  as  free  to  draft  money,  wealth,  and  re- 
sources, as  it  is  to  draft  lives,  we  shall  finally  get  to  a  truly 
economic  and  democratic  system  of  national  defense,  and  then 
everybody  will  feel  that,  while  it  is  perhaps  an  awful  burden, 
it  is  at  least  as  equally  distributed  among  all  the  members  of 
the  community  as  human  beings  can  make  it. 

Some  of  our  people  think  that  we  shall  not  need  a  great 
army  or  a  great  navy.  Pray  God  that  it  may  be  so.  The 
present  signs,  however,  are  not  very  favorable  for  that  view, 
and  if  we  are  to  build  a  great  army  or  a  great  navy,  let  us  adopt 
a  thorough,  democratic,  economic,  and  efficient  system,  instead 
of  the  one  we  have  relied  upon  hitherto. 

There  is,  of  course,  another  aspect  of  this  case  which  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  all,  namely,  the  unwillingness  of  the 
American  people  to  accept  a  really  efficient  scheme  of  military 
and  naval  organization.  Certainly  our  method  of  placing  and 
caring  for  navy  yards  and  military  forts  is  so  perfectly  idiotic 
that  no  one  can  defend  it,  and  yet  no  one  is  strong  enough  to 
introduce  a  newer  or  a  better  system. 

Perhaps  the  time  will  come,  if  we  do  have  to  have  a  great 
army  and  a  great  navy,  when  the  political  graft  in  that  larger 
sense  of  inefficiency  because  of  political  considerations — I  am 
not  speaking  here  of  bribery  or  anything  of  that  sort,  for  it  has 
no  place  in  this  discussion — will  have  passed  away  and  the 
American  people  will  see  that  it  is  a  crime,  not  merely  a  blunder, 
but  a  crime  against  the  men  who  are  called  upon  to  serve  the 
country,  for  us  to  have  an  inefficient  system  under  which  they 
would  certainly  lose  their  lives,  and  possibly  without  preserving 
the  country. 

To  accomplish  this  it  will  be  necessary  to  educate  the  people. 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

Let  them  become  more  interested  in  our  army  and  navy,  under- 
stand more  definitely  what  they  really  are  and  what  they  are 
try  big  to  do.  As  a  contribution  toward  this  particular  problem, 
I  think  this  book  of  Captain  Kerrick's  is  most  valuable,  and 
I  wish  for  it  the  very  widest  reading. 

(Signed)  EDMUND  J.  JAMES. 

University  of  Illinois, 
Urbana,  Illinois 
August  1,  1916. 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


CHAPTER  I 

EXCERPTS    FROM    "STATEMENT   OF   A 

PROPER    MILITARY    POLICY   FOR 

THE  UNITED  STATES" 

PREPARED  BY  THE  WAR  COLLEGE  DIVISION,  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS, 
BY  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR 

THE  MILITARY  PROBLEM  CONFRONTING  THE  UNITED   STATES 

1.  The  evolution  of  national  military  policies. — National 
policies  are  evolved  and  are  expanded  as  the  Nation  grows. 
They  reflect  the  national  sense  of  responsibility  and  also  the 
national  ambitions.  They  constitute  the  doctrine  underlying 
acts  of  statesmanship  and  diplomacy.  A  nation's  military 
policy  is  the  national  doctrine  of  self-preservation.  The  world 
is  never  without  virile,  capable,  and  progressive  nations,  the 
circumstances  of  whose  development  have  imbued  them  with 
the  belief  that  their  vital  interests  demand  an  active,  aggressive 
policy.  They  are  forced  to  resort  to  universal  service  in  the 
effort  to  fulfill,  at  any  cost,  what  they  conceive  to  be  their 
destiny.  In  the  United  States  the  development  of  the  Nation 
has  proceeded  under  an  environment  so  favorable  that  there  is  no 
well-defined  public  opinion  in  regard  to  what  constitutes  an  ade- 
quate military  policy.  Heretofore  isolation,  combined  with  the 
necessity  of  preserving  the  balance  of  power,  has  been  a  sufficient 
guaranty  against  strong  hostile  expeditions  from  Europe  or 
Asia.  The  safeguard  of  isolation  no  longer  exists.  The  oceans, 
once  barriers,  are  now  easy  avenues  of  approach  by  reason  of 
the  number,  speed,  and  carrying  capacity  of  ocean-going  vessels. 
The  increasing  radii  of  action  of  the  submarine,  the  aeroplane, 

3 


4  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

and  wireless  telegraphy  all  supplement  ocean  transporMn  placing 
both  our  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  within  the  sphere  of  hostile 
activities  of  oversea  nations. 

The  great  mass  of  the  public  does  not  yet  realize  the  effect  of 
these  changed  conditions  upon  our  scheme  of  defense. 

Another  thing  that  militates  against  the  evolution  of  a  sound 
military  policy  for  our  country  is  the  erroneous  conclusion  drawn 
by  the  people  from  our  past  experiences  in  war.  In  developing 
such  a  policy  victory  is  often  a  less  trustworthy  guide  than  de- 
feat. We  have  been  plunged  into  many  wars  and  have  ulti- 
mately emerged  successfully  from  each  of  them.  The  general 
public  points  to  these  experiences  as  an  indication  that  our 
military  policy  has  been  and  still  continues  to  be  sound.  That 
this  is  not  really  the  belief  of 'those  in  authority  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  each  war  of  importance  has  been  followed  by  an  official 
investigation  of  our  military  system  and  the  policy  under  which 
it  operated.  The  reports  of  these  investigations  give  a  startling 
picture  of  faulty  leadership,  needless  waste  of  lives  and  property, 
costly  overhead  charges  augmented  by  payment  of  bounties 
to  keep  up  voluntary  enlistments,  undue  prolongations  of  all 
these  wars,  and  finally  reckless  expenditure  of  public  funds 
for  continuing  pensions.  These  documents  supply  convincing 
proofs  that  all  such  shortcomings  have  been  due  entirely  to  a 
lack  of  adequate  preparation  for  war  in  time  of  peace.  But 
we  have  not  yet  learned  our  lesson.  It  has  never  been  driven 
home  by  the  bitterness  of  defeat.  We  have  never  known  a 
Jena  or  a  Sedan.  At  no  stage  of  our  national  life  have  we  been 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  armed  strength  of  a  great  world 
power  free  to  land  sufficient  forces  to  gain  a  foothold  at  any  de- 
sired portion  of  our  coasts.  That  we  have  to  some  extent  felt 
this  danger  is  evidenced  by  our  efforts  to  provide  a  navy  as  a 
first  line  of  defense  and  to  supplement  it  with  the  necessary 
harbor  fortifications;  but  we  have  not  yet  realized  that  our 
ultimate  safeguard  is  an  adequate  and  well-organized  mobile 
land  force.  Experience  in  war  has  shown  the  need  of  these 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES    5 

three  elements  but  the  public  has  not  yet  demanded  that  they 
be  perfected,  coordinated,  and  combined  in  one  harmonious 
system  of  national  defense.  Not  until  this  has  been  accomplished 
will  a  proper  military  policy  for  the  United  States  be  adopted. 

2.  Our  abiding  national  policies. — The  majority  of  our  people 
have  always  believed  in  asserting  their  own  rights  and  in  re- 
specting those  of  others.     They  desire  that  the  cause  of  right 
should  prevail  and  that  lawlessness  should  be  crushed  out.     To 
live  up  to  these  high  ideals  imposes  upon  us  new  duties  as  a  world 
power;  duties  that  require  something  more  positive  than  a 
policy  of  mere  passive  defense.     In  addition,  there  are  two 
underlying  and  abiding  national  policies  whose  maintenance 
we  must  consider  as  necessary  to  our  national  life.     These  are 
the  " Monroe  Doctrine "  and  the  policy  of  avoiding  "entangling 
alliances."     They  are  distinctive  and  affect  our  international 
relations  in  a  definite  manner.     In  addition,  policies  may  de- 
velop in  the  future  as  a  result  of  international  relations  with 
respect  to  trade  conditions. 

A  general  consideration  of  our  responsibilities  as  a  nation 
and  of  our  geographical  position  indicates  that  the  maintenance 
of  our  abiding  policies  and  interests  at  home  and  abroad  in- 
volves problems  of  defense  measures  both  on  land  and  on  sea. 
The  solution  of  the  general  problem  of  national  defense  must  be 
sought  in  the  provision  of  adequate  land  and  sea  forces  and  a 
consideration  of  their  coordinate  relationship. 

3.  Coordinate  relationship   of  Army   and  Navy. — Upon  the 
Navy  devolves  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  securing  and  main- 
taining control  of  the  sea.     To  accomplish  this  it  must  be  free 
to  take  the  offensive  promptly — that  is,  to  seek  out  and  defeat 
the  enemy  fleet.     The  use  of  any  part  of  the  high-sea  fleet  for 
local  defense  defeats  the  chief  object  of  the  Navy  and  is  a  misuse 
of  naval  power.     A  fleet  defeated  at  sea  and  undefended  by  an 
adequate  army  is  powerless  either  to  prevent  invasion  or  even 
its  own  ultimate  destruction  by  combined  hostile  land  and  naval 
forces.     In  illustration  compare  the  cases  of  the  Spanish  fleet 


6  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

at  Santiago  and  the  Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  with  the 
present  example  of  the  German,  Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleets 
under  the  protection  of  land  forces. 

Upon  the  Army  devolves  the  task  of  gaining  and  maintaining 
on  shore  the  ascendency  over  hostile  land  and  naval  operations. 
To  accomplish  this  it  must  be  able  to  seek  out  promptly  and  to 
defeat,  capture,  or  destroy  the  invader  wherever  he  may  at- 
tempt either  to  secure  a  footing  upon  our  territory  or  to  enter 
the  waters  of  our  harbors  with  the  objective  of  threatening  the 
destruction  of  the  seaport  or  of  a  fleet  driven  to  seek  refuge 
or  repair  therein. 

The  problems  involved  in  operations  against  hostile  land  forces 
are  complex  and  include  only  as  an  incident  the  protection  of 
harbor  defenses  on  the  land  side.  The  problems  of  harbor  de- 
fense against  attack  from  the  sea  are  simple  and  passive  in 
their  nature. 

4.  Coordinate  relationship  of  statesman  and  soldier. — In  our 
country  public  opinion  estimates  the  situation,  statecraft  shapes 
the  policy,  while  the  duty  of  executing  it  devolves  upon  the 
military  and  naval  departments. 

Such  a  doctrine  is  sound  in  direct  proportion  to  its  success 
in  producing  a  military  system  capable  of  developing  fighting 
power  sufficient  to  meet  any  given  national  emergency,  at  the 
proper  time,  supported  by  all  the  resources,  technical  and  econ- 
omic, of  the  country,  in  a  word — Preparedness.  All  the  other 
world  powers  of  to-day  have  realized  the  necessity  of  maintain- 
ing highly  trained  and  organized  military  and  naval  forces  in  time 
of  peace,  and  all,  or  nearly  all,  are  allied  in  powerful  coalitions. 

Without  superiority  on  the  sea  or  an  adequate  land  force 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  any  hostile  power  or  coalition  of 
powers  from  landing  on  our  shores  such  part  of  its  trained  and 
disciplined  troops  as  its  available  transports  can  carry.  The 
time  required  is  limited  only  by  the  average  speed  of  its  vessels 
and  the  delay  necessarily  consumed  in  embarking  and  disem- 
barking. 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES    7 

In  order  that  the  American  people  can  intelligently  decide  on 
a  doctrine  of  preparedness  which  shall  constitute  the  military 
policy  of  the  United  States,  and  that  Congress  and  the  Executive 
may  be  able  to  carry  out  their  decision,  information  concerning 
the  military  strength  of  other  great  nations  and  shipping 
available  for  transport  purposes  must  be  clearly  set  forth. 

The  work  of  the  statesman  and  of  the  soldier  and  sailor  are 
therefore  coordinate;  where  the  first  leaves  off  the  others  take 
hold. 

5.  Preparedness  of  the  world  powers  for  oversea  expeditions. — 
Control  of  the  sea  having  been  once  gained  by  our  adversary 
or  adversaries,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  them  from  dispatching 
an  oversea  expedition  against  us.  In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the 
mobile  force  we  should  have  ready  to  resist  it  an  estimate 
must  first  be  made  of  the  approximate  number  of  troops  that 
other  nations  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  transport  and 
of  the  time  required  to  land  them  on  our  coasts. 

The  number  of  thoroughly  trained  and  organized  troops  an 
enemy  can  bring  in  the  first  and  succeeding  expeditions  under 
such  an  assumption  is  a  function  of: 

(a)  The  size  of  the  enemy's  army,  and 

(6)  The  number,  size,  and  speed  of  the  vessels  of  the  enemy's 
merchant  marine  that  can  be  used  as  transports. 

Should  our  enemy  be  a  nation  in  arms — that  is,  one  in  which 
all  or  nearly  all  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  suitable  physique 
are  given  a  minimum  of  two  years'  training  with  the  colors  in 
time  of  peace  (and  this  is  true  of  all  world  powers  except  our- 
selves and  England) ,  it  is  evident  that  the  size  of  the  first  expe- 
dition and  succeeding  expeditions  would  be  limited  only  by  the 
number  of  vessels  in  the  transport  fleets.  It  also  follows  that 
as  the  capacity  and  number  of  steamers  in  the  merchant  marine 
of  any  nation  or  group  of  nations  increase  in  the  future,  the 
number  of  trained  soldiers  which  such  nation  could  send  in 
such  expedition  will  also  increase,  and  our  trained  forces  should 
be  correspondingly  augmented. 


8  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

What  the  conditions  were  in  August,  1914,  is  shown  in 
the  table  on  page  9,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  reasonable 
estimate. 

The  quality,  organization,  and  efficiency  of  these  troops, 
except  those  of  Japan,  which  demonstrated  their  excellence  in 
the  Russo-Japanese  War,  are  now  undergoing  a  supreme  test 
of  military  strength  on  land  and  sea.  In  addition,  where  cer- 
tain nations  have  transported  troops  by  sea  their  capabilities 
in  this  respect  have  to  some  extent  been  shown.  This  test  by 
the  ordeal  of  battle  is  visibly  demonstrating  their  organization, 
their  fighting  power,  and  the  rate  at  which  each  is  capable  of 
developing  and  maintaining  its  military  strength. 

This  evidence,  produced  under  conditions  of  actual  warfare, 
presents  an  example  of  the  resultant  efficiency  of  any  nation  that 
has  developed  a  sound  military  policy;  the  soundest  policy  be- 
ing the  one  which  insures  a  successful  termination  of  the  war  in 
the  shortest  time. 

6.  Statement  of  the  military  problem. — From  what  has  been 
stated,  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  we  must  be  prepared 
to  resist  a  combined  land  and  sea  operation  of  formidable 
strength.  Our  principal  coast  cities  and  important  harbors 
have  already  been  protected  by  harbor  defenses  which,  by  pas- 
sive method  alone,  can  deny  to  an  enemy  the  use  of  these  locali- 
ties as  bases  for  such  expeditions. 

The  enemy  being  unable  to  gain  a  foothold  in  any  of  these 
fortified  areas  by  direct  naval  attack  will  therefore  be  forced  to 
find  some  suitable  place  on  the  coast  from  which  land  operations 
can  be  conducted  both  against  the  important  coast  cities  and 
the  rich  commercial  centres  in  the  interior.  Long  stretches  of 
coast  line  between  the  fortified  places  lie  open  to  the  enemy. 
The  only  reasonable  way  in  which  these  localities  can  be  de- 
fended is  by  providing  a  mobile  land  force  of  sufficient  strength, 
so  located  that  it  may  be  thrown  in  at  threatened  points  at  the 
proper  time. 

Hence  it  can  be  seen,  when  we  take  into  consideration  the 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES     9 


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10  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

possible  two  months'  delay  provided  by  the  Navy,  that  our 
system  should  be  able  to  furnish  500,000  trained  and  organized 
mobile  troops  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  and  to  have  at  least 
500,000  more  available  within  ninety  days  thereafter.  Here, 
however,  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  two  expeditions  alone  will 
provide  a  force  large  enough  to  cope  with  our  1,000,000  mobile 
troops,  and  consequently  we  must  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
provide  the  system  to  raise  and  train,  in  addition,  at  least  500,000 
troops  to  replace  the  losses  and  wastage  in  personnel  incident 
to  war. 


I.    THE  REGULAR  ARMY 

GENERAL  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  REGULAR  ARMY 

7.  In  the  endeavor  to  reach  a  just  conclusion  as  to  the  strength 
and  organization  of  a  Regular  Army,  adequate  to  play  its  part 
in  our  national  defense,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  de- 
fense is  a  joint  problem  requiring  for  its  correct  solution  the 
united  efforts  of  both  Army  and  Navy,  and  that  the  ultimate 
strength  of  the  greater  war  army  is  dependent  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  part  to  be  played  by  the  fleet.  It  is  therefore 
assumed  in  this  discussion  that  the  Navy  is  preparing  to  place 
and  maintain  in  the  Pacific,  when  the  occasion  requires,  a  force 
superior  to  that  of  any  oriental  nation,  and,  in  the  Atlantic,  one 
second  only  to  that  of  the  greatest  European  naval  power. 

The  Regular  Army  is  the  peace  nucleus  of  the  greater  war 
army  of  the  Nation.  Its  strength  and  organization  should  be 
determined  not  only  by  its  relation  to  the  larger  force  but  by  its 
own  peace  and  war  functions.  It  must  be  prepared  at  all  times 
to  meet  sudden  and  special  emergencies,  which  cannot  be  met 
by  the  army  of  citizen  soldiers.  Its  units  must  be  the  models 
for  the  organization  and  training  of  those  of  the  great  war 
army. 

Some  of  the  functions  of  the  Regular  Army  are : 


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12  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

(a)  To  furnish  the  entire  strength  of  our  garrisons  outside  of 
the  United  States  proper  both  in  peace  and  war. 

(6)  To  garrison  our  harbor  defenses  within  the  United  States 
proper  in  time  of  peace. 

(c)  To  furnish  detachments  of  mobile  forces  in  time  of  peace 
sufficient  for  the  protection  of  these  harbor  defenses  and  naval 
bases  against  naval  raids  which,  under  modern  conditions,  may 
precede  a  declaration  of  war. 

(d)  To  furnish  sufficient  mobile  forces  to  protect  our  principal 
cities  by  preventing  the  landing  of  hostile  expeditions  for  their 
capture  in  the  intervals  between  our  fortified  harbors  or  near 
such  cities. 

(e)  To  supply  a  mobile  reserve  to  reenf  orce  our  garrisons  out- 
side of  the  United  States  proper  during  periods  of  insurrection 
and  disorder. 

(/)  To  furnish  expeditionary  forces  for  minor  wars  resulting 
from  the  occupation  of  foreign  territory  where  treaty  rights  or 
fundamental  national  policies  may  have  been  threatened. 

(</)  To  prepare  hi  advance  its  existing  administrative  and 
supply  departments  for  the  equipment,  transportation,  and 
supply  of  the  great  war  army  of  the  Nation. 

(K)  To  assist  in  the  training  of  organizations  of  citizen  soldiers. 

8.  Concerning  the  strength  and  organization  of  the  Regular 
Army,  the  following  points  are  to  be  considered: 

(a)  At  the  outbreak  of  war  the  Regular  Army  at  home  should 
be  strong  enough,  with  the  addition  of  organized  and  trained 
citizen  soldiers,  to  form  the  first  line  of  defense  in  order  to  give 
sufficient  time  to  permit  the  mobilization  and  concentration 
of  our  greater  war  army,  and  to  seize  opportunities  for  such 
immediate  initial  operations  as  may  be  undertaken  before  the 
mobilization  of  the  army  of  citizen  soldiers  can  be  completed. 

(6)  It  should  be  so  organized  and  located  that  it  can  be 
economically  and  efficiently  trained,  quickly  and  easily  mobil- 
ized and  concentrated,  and  readily  used  as  a  model  in  the  edu- 
cation and  training  of  the  citizen  forces. 


IS 


14  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

MOBILE  AND   COAST   ARTILLERY   TROOPS   AND   THEIR   FUNCTIONS 

9.  Experience  has  shown  that  OUT  regular  land  forces  and 
others  modeled  upon  them  must  consist  of  two  distinct  classes, 
i.  e.: 

(a)  Mobile  troops. 

(6)  Coast  Artillery  troops. 

These  two  groups  have  their  own  special  functions  for  which 
they  are  trained  and  equipped  and  from  which  they  should 
not  be  diverted  except  in  some  emergency. 

The  function  of  the  Coast  Artillery  is  to  man  our  harbor  de- 
fenses designed  to  protect  important  seaports  from  direct  naval 
attacks  and  raids  from  the  sea.  The  armament  and  accessories 
of  these  forts  are  intended  to  be  so  complete  and  powerful  as  not 
only  to  prevent  hostile  landings  at  all  places  within  range  of  the 
guns,  but  also  to  cover  all  navigable  waters  in  the  vicinity  of 
great  seacoast  cities  so  thoroughly  as  to  leave  no  dead  spaces 
from  which  enemy  ships,  either  at  anchor  or  during  a  run-by, 
could  bring  them  under  bombardment.  While  these  harbor 
forts  are  important  elements  in  our  scheme  of  defense,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  powerless  to  prevent  invasion  at  points  outside 
the  range  of  their  guns.  The  total  length  of  our  coast  line  is 
enormous  (over  5,000  miles,  not  including  Alaska),  and  the 
stretches  covered  by  harbor  defenses  are  and  must  remain 
very  small  compared  with  the  unprotected  intervals  that  lie 
between  them.  If  we  should  lose  command  of  the  sea  an  in- 
vader would  simply  land  in  one  of  these  intervals.  It  therefore 
follows  that  the  ultimate  defense  of  our  coasts  depends  upon 
defeating  a  mobile  army  of  invasion,  and  this  can  be  done  only 
by  having  mobile  forces  prepared  to  operate  in  any  possible 
theatre  of  war.  At  this  stage  of  hostilities  the  problem  becomes 
one  of  cooperation  between  Coast  Artillery  and  mobile  troops, 
but  there  can  be  no  fixed  relation  in  the  strength  of  these  two 
classes  of  land  forces.  The  necessary  strength  of  Coast  Artil- 
lery troops  depends  upon  the  number  and  character  of  harbor 


RUSSIA 


GERMANY 


FRANCF 


AUSTRIA 


ITALY 


JAPAN 


U.S. 

Relative  Peace  Strength  of  Field  Artillery,  1914 
15 


16  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

defenses  established;  that  of  mobile  troops  upon  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  defensive  and  offensive  operations  for  which  the 
Nation  decides  to  be  prepared. 


RELATION  BETWEEN  HOME  AND  OVERSEA  GARRISONS 

10.  The  most  rational  method  of  determining  the  proper 
strength  and  organization  of  the  Regular  Army  is  based  upon 
the  fact  that  this  force  is  and  must  be  divided  into  two  distinct 
parts — one  for  oversea  service,  the  other  for  home  service. 
Each  of  these  parts  must  have  its  proper  quota,  both  of  mobile 
and  Coast  Artillery  troops. 

The  troops  on  oversea  service  consist  of  the  detachments 
required  to  meet  the  special  military  problems  of  the  Philip- 
pines, Oahu,  Panama,  Alaska,  Guantanamo,  and  Porto  Rico. 
Each  of  these  detachments  has  a  distinct  tactical  and  strategic 
mission,  and  is  to  operate  within  a  restricted  terrain.  All  of 
them  are  limited  to  oversea  communication  with  the  home 
country,  and  all  of  them  may  therefore  be  isolated  for  consider- 
able periods,  especially  in  the  critical  first  stages  of  war.  It  is 
obvious  that  under  these  circumstances  these  detachments 
should  be  prepared  to  meet  all  military  emergencies  until  reen- 
forcements  from  the  United  States  can  reasonably  be  expected. 
They  must,  therefore,  be  maintained  at  all  times  at  full  statu- 
tory strength,  and  must,  in  addition,  be  organized  with  the  view 
to  being  self-supporting,  preferably  during  the  continuance  of 
war,  or  at  least  until  the  Navy  has  accomplished  its  primary 
mission  of  securing  the  command  of  the  sea. 

The  force  at  home  is  on  an  entirely  different  basis.  It  may 
or  may  not  be  given  an  adequate  strength  in  time  of  peace,  but 
it  is  supported  by  all  of  the  resources  of  the  Nation.  It  may  be 
increased  at  the  pleasure  of  Congress,  and  it  may  be  reenforced 
by  considerable  forces  of  citizen  soldiery.  It  follows  from  these 
considerations  that  the  military  establishment  of  the  United 
States  in  time  of  peace  should  first  provide  effective  and  suffi- 


17 


18  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

cient  garrisons  for  the  political  and  strategic  outposts  of  the 
United  States,  and  that  the  residue  at  home  should  be  organized 
with  the  view  to  ultimate  expansion  into  such  war  forces  as 
national  interests  may  require. 


GENERAL   REQUIREMENTS   OF   OVERSEA   SERVICE 

11.  The  Philippines. — A  decision  to  defend  the  Philippines 
against  a  foreign  enemy  is  a  matter  of  national  and  not  of  mili- 
tary policy.     But  in  studying  the  military  requirements  of  such 
defense  it  must  be  remembered  that,  under  conditions  of  modern 
warfare,  unless  our  Navy  has  undisputed  control  of  the  sea,  we 
cannot  reenforce  the  peace  garrison  after  a  declaration  of  war 
or  while  war  is  imminent. 

12.  Oahu. — The  maintenance  of  the  naval  base   at  Pearl 
Harbor,  Oahu,  is  an  essential  factor  in  the  military  problem 
of  holding  the  Hawaiian  Islands.     These  islands   constitute 
a  vital  element  in  the  defense  of  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  secur- 
ing to  ourselves  the  full  value  of  the  Panama  Canal  as  a  strategic 
highway  between  the  two  oceans. 

The  problem  of  holding  the  Hawaiian  Islands  can  be  solved 
by  making  Oahu,  and  therefore  Pearl  Harbor,  secure  against  all 
comers.  A  satisfactory  solution  requires  the  joint  action  of 
the  Army  and  Navy.  Pearl  Harbor  and  Honolulu  are  already 
protected  from  direct  naval  attack  by  fortifications  now  near- 
ing  completion.  These,  while  deemed  adequate  to  meet  the 
conditions  existing  when  they  were  designed,  must  now  be 
strengthened  to  meet  the  recent  increase  in  power  of  guns  afloat; 
but  no  matter  how  complete  these  harbor  fortifications  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Oahu  may  be,  they  are  unable  to  prevent  at- 
tacks either  on  the  remaining  hundred  miles  of  coast  lying  be- 
yond the  range  of  their  guns  or  on  the  other  islands  of  the  group. 
Consequently  there  should  be  in  addition  a  force  of  modern 
submarines  and  destroyers  forming  part  of  the  permanent  naval 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES   ID 

equipment  of  Pearl  Harbor  with  sufficient  radius  of  action  to 
keep  the  Hawaiian  waters  thoroughly  patrolled  throughout 
their  whole  extent  and  to  make  them  dangerous  for  enemy  ves- 
sels. Should  this  force  be  worsted  in  combat  and  withdrawn 
before  the  arrival  of  our  high-sea  fleet,  the  complete  control 
of  the  local  waters  might  pass  temporarily  to  the  enemy,  so 
that  the  ultimate  security  of  both  Honolulu,  the  naval  base  at 
Pearl  Harbor,  and  indeed  of  the  whole  group,  depends  upon  in- 
cluding in  the  Oahu  garrison  enough  mobile  troops  to  defeat 
any  enemy  that  may  land  anywhere  on  the  island.  It  is  clear 
that  perfect  coordination  between  the  Army  and  Navy  at  this 
station  is  absolutely  essential  to  success  in  holding  this  key  to 
the  Pacific.  Unless  we  provide  such  dual  defense  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  we  cannot  be  sure  of  retaining  control 
even  of  that  part  of  the  Pacific  lying  within  the  sphere  of 
defense  of  our  western  coast.  By  making  such  provision  the 
high-sea  fleet  is  left  free  to  seek  out  the  enemy  fleet  in  Pacific 
waters. 

13.  Panama. — The  Panama  Canal  is  a  very  important  strate- 
gic position  which  it  is  our  duty  to  hold.  By  our  control  of 
this  highway  between  the  two  oceans  the  effectiveness  of  our 
fleet  and  our  general  military  power  is  enormously  increased. 
It  is  therefore  obvious  that  the  unquestioned  security  of  the 
canal  is  for  us  a  vital  military  need.  The  permanent  garrison 
should  be  strong  enough  to  guard  the  locks,  spillways,  and  other 
important  works  and  to  prevent  a  naval  attack  which,  under 
modern  conditions,  may  even  precede  a  declaration  of  war. 
We  should  therefore  be  able,  even  in  peace,  to  man  the  sea- 
coast  guns  and  mine  defense  that  cover  the  approach  to  the 
canal,  and  we  must  have  enough  mobile  troops  to  defeat  raids. 
A  modern  fleet  might  land  a  small  raiding  party  of  several  thousand 
bluejackets  at  any  one  or  more  of  a  number  of  places,  and  such  a 
force  landing  out  of  range  of  the  seacoast  guns  could,  if  unopposed, 
penetrate  to  some  vulnerable  part  of  the  canal  within  a  few  hours. 
The  permanent  garrison  should  therefore  include  a  mobile 


20  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

force  strong  enough  to  anticipate  and  defeat  naval  raids  at  the 
beginning  of  hostilities  and  to  protect  the  canal  against  more 
serious  land  operations  liable  to  be  undertaken  later.  If  the 
enemy  is  operating  on  one  ocean  only,  it  might  be  possible  to 
send  reinforcements  from  the  United  States,  but  to  count  on 
such  relief  would  be  running  too  great  chances.  By  authority 
of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  this  garrison  is  given  facilities  in 
time  of  peace  to  operate  beyond  the  Canal  Zone  in  order  that 
the  troops  may  be  properly  trained  for  their  special  mission  and 
made  familiar  with  the  terrain  over  which  they  may  be  called 
upon  to  operate  in  defending  the  canal. 

14.  Guantanamo. — The   policy   of   the   United   States   con- 
templates the  establishment  of  a  naval  base  at  Guantanamo. 
Garrisons  of  coast  artillery  and  mobile  troops  are  necessary 
for  its  defense  and  should  be  assigned  to  station  there  at  the 
proper  time. 

15.  Alaska. — The  garrison  of  Alaska  should  be  large  enough  to 
support  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  and,  in  time  of  war, 
to  maintain  our  sovereignty  over  a  small  selected  area  of  the 
territory.     As  work  on  the  Alaskan  Railroad  progresses,  the 
military  needs  of  Alaska  will  increase. 

16.  Porto   Rico   is    to   be   classified   with    the   Philippines 
and  Guam.      Unlike  Alaska   and    Hawaii,  these    island    pos- 
sessions have  not   been    organized    as    territories;   neverthe- 
less, they  all   belong    to  the    United    States    and    must    be 
protected. 

GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS  OF  HOME  SERVICE 

17.  General  distribution  of  Coast  Artillery  troops  in  fortified 
areas. — Coast  Artillery  stations  should  correspond  to  the  forti- 
fied areas  on  the  seacoast,  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  har- 
bor defenses.     [See  military  map.] 

18.  General  distribution  of  mobile  troops  in  strategic  areas. — 
To  provide  harbor  defenses  without  mobile  forces  necessary 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  21 

to  cover  the  unprotected  intervals  that  lie  between  them  would 
be  comparable  with  attempting  to  make  a  house  burglar  proof 
by  barring  the  doors  and  leaving  the  windows  open.  There  is 
not  a  case  in  history  where  seacoast  fortifications,  efficiently 
manned,  have  been  captured  by  direct  attack  from  the  sea. 
In  all  cases  of  capture  mobile  land  forces  have  been  employed 
for  the  purpose,  and  an  enemy  that  hopes  for  success  must  under- 
take landing  operations  against  us. 

19.  Puget  Sound  area. — Western  Washington  is  bordered  on 
the  east  by  the  steep  and  rugged  Cascade  Mountains,  on  the 
south  by  the  Columbia  River,  and  on  the  north  by  Juan  de 
Fuca  Strait  and  Canada.  This  corner  of  the  United  States  is 
completely  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  country  by  great  natural 
obstacles  and  presents  an  extensive  front  for  attack  by  sea. 
While  the  maps  show  some  twenty  passes  across  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  communication  with  the  east  is  almost  entirely  by  three 
railroads,  all  crossing  at  points  less  than  50  miles  apart  and  hav- 
ing tunnels  or  other  vulnerable  structures.  The  only  practicable 
wagon  road  is  effectually  closed  to  traffic  for  between  four  and  five 
months  each  year  by  heavy  snows.  Communication  with  the 
south  is  by  one  line  of  railroad,  crossing  the  Columbia  River  by 
bridge  at  Vancouver.  Communication  between  this  section  and 
the  east  and  south  is  thus  largely  dependent  upon  a  number  of 
structures  readily  destroyed  by  high  explosives,  and  impos- 
sible of  restoration  to  traffic  within  a  definite  time.  The  two 
railroads  along  the  Columbia  River,  at  the  point  where  it  breaks 
through  the  mountains,  could  be  easily  wrecked  so  as  to  require 
considerable  time  to  repair,  and  the  gorge  could  be  held  by  a 
small  force  against  a  large  one  coming  from  the  east.  If  an 
enemy  succeeds  in  entering  western  Washington  and  in  seizing 
and  destroying  the  important  bridges  and  tunnels,  he  would  be 
so  securely  established  as  to  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  dis- 
lodge him.  In  this  rich  region  an  invader  could  maintain  himself 
indefinitely.  The  harbor  defenses  maintained  in  this  region 
are  reasonably  strong.  Ordinary  precaution  demands  that  a 


22  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

mobile  force  of  reasonable  strength  be  also  maintained  in  this 
region. 

20.  California  area. — There  are  five  transcontinental  lines 
of  railway  entering  California.  The  Western  Pacific  and 
Southern  Pacific  by  the  passes  through  the  Sierras  northeast 
of  Sacramento;  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  and  the  San 
Pedro,  Los  Angeles  &  Salt  Lake  via  Daggetts  Pass  northeast 
of  Los  Angeles;  and  the  Southern  Pacific  via  the  Salton  Sea 
and  Gorgonia  Pass  southeast  of  Los  Angeles.  There  are  no 
other  passes  through  the  Sierras  that  have  been  considered  prac- 
ticable. There  is  no  railroad  running  south  into  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. Only  one  railroad,  the  Southern  Pacific,  runs  north  into 
Oregon.  As  in  the  Puget  Sound  region,  communication  with 
the  east  is  largely  dependent  upon  structures  readily  destroyed 
by  explosives  and  impossible  of  restoration  to  traffic  with- 
in a  definite  time;  California  and  the  greater  centres  of 
population  are  separated  by  wide  expanses  of  sparsely 
settled  country.  To  transport  promptly  large  bodies  of  troops 
into  California  would  be  difficult  if  not  impossible  in  face  of 
opposition  at  the  passes.  The  invader  would  have  a  most 
fertile  region  at  his  back,  while  the  reverse  would  be  the  situa- 
tion with  us. 

The  harbor  defenses  maintained  in  this  region  are  reasonably 
strong,  but  they  are  of  little  use  unless  supported  by  a  reasonably 
strong  mobile  force  maintained  in  this  region. 

To  rely,  for  defense,  during  the  first  stages  of  a  war  upon  a 
mobile  force  shipped  in  from  the  east  is  to  invite  disaster. 

21.  Atlantic  area. — In  case  of  war  with  a  first-class  power  on 
the  Atlantic,  that  portion  of  our  country  lying  between  and 
including  Maine  and  Virginia  would  undoubtedly  be  the  primary 
object  of  an  invader.  While  all  other  points  along  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts  and  all  points  on  our  land  frontiers  would  un- 
doubtedly be  in  danger,  the  danger  would  be  secondary  to  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic  States  above  named.  Here,  also,  the 
harbor  defenses  are  reasonably  strong,  and  here,  also,  a  mobile 


MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES   23 

force  should  be  kept  sufficient  in  size  to  hold  important  points 
until  the  citizen  soldiery  can  be  mobilized. 

While  many  other  regions  are  important,  the  three  regions  de- 
scribed— Puget  Sound,  California,  and  the  North  Atlantic 
States — contain  the  critical  areas. 

22.  Middle  West  area. — The  centre  of  population  of  the 
United  States  is  in  the  middle  west,  and  here  should  be  located 
a  mobile  force  for  use  in  case  of  need,  on  either  the  Pacific  or 
Atlantic  coast,  the  northern  or  southern  border. 

V.    RESERVE  MATERIEL 

47.  In  a  war  of  gigantic  proportions  the  chances  of  success 
are  immeasurably  lessened  by  wastage,  abuse,  and  confusion. 
Steps  should  be  taken  looking  toward  a  national  organization 
of  our  economic  and  industrial  resources  as  well  as  our  resources 
in  fighting  men. 

49.  The  lack  of  such  articles  as  shoes,  wagons,  harness,  rifles, 
saddles,  medical  chests,  and  so  on,  will  render  ineffective  an 
army  just  as  certainly  as  will  the  lack  of  ammunition. 

52.  A  fully  trained  force,  to  be  effective  during  the  critical 
period  when  war  is  imminent  and  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  a 
war,  must  not  be  hampered  by  lack  of  necessary  supplies  and 
equipment.  For  this  reason,  supplies  of  all  kinds  which  cannot 
be  obtained  in  the  open  market  at  any  time  must  be  kept  on 
hand,  in  use  and  in  store,  at  home  and  oversea,  sufficient  to 
equip  without  delay  all  troops  whose  training  warrants  sending 
them  promptly  into  the  field. 

59.  In  order  that  the  efforts  of  the  various  supply  bureaus 
may  be  properly  coordinated  by  the  Chief  of  Staff,  reserve  sup- 
plies should  be  collected  in  general  supply  depots  located  in 
accordance  with  the  general  principle  below  enumerated.  Each 
general  supply  depot  should  be  considered  a  place  of  issue  in 
time  of  peace  for  all  articles  of  field  equipment,  so  that  the  stock 
on  hand  will  be  continually  turned  over  and  the  machinery 


£4 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


for  the  issuing  and  forwarding  of  supplies  will  be  in  operation 
at  the  outbreak  of  war.  The  commander  of  each  general  sup- 
ply depot  should  be  either  a  line  or  a  staff  officer  specially 
selected  by  and  reporting  direct  to  the  Chief  of  Staff  and  inde- 
pendent of  the  control  of  any  one  particular  staff  department 
but  keeping  in  touch  with  all.  The  commander  of  each  general 
supply  depot  should  be  assisted  by  the  necessary  commissioned, 
enlisted,  and  civilian  personnel.  Supplies  for  not  more  than 
three  division  units  should  be  stored  at  any  one  locality.  Each 
place  selected  for  a  reserve  storehouse  should  be  one  that  will 
be  at  all  times  under  adequate  military  protection,  where 
ground  is  available  and  where  abundant  railroad  facilities  exist. 

60.  As  a  general  military  principle,  no  supply  depot,  arsenal, 
or  manufacturing  plant  of  any  considerable  size,  supported  by 
War  Department  appropriations  for  military  purposes,  should 
be  established  or  maintained  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains, 
west  of  the  Cascade  or  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  nor  within 
200  miles  of  our  Canadian  or  Mexican  borders,  and  steps  should 
be  taken  gradually  to  cause  to  be  moved  depots  and  manufactur- 
ing plants  already  established  in  violation  of  this  military  prin- 
ciple. 

61.  Estimated  cost  of  the  field  equipment  of  one  Infantry 
division,  and  one  Cavalry  division,  is  as  follows: 


r 

Can  be  ob- 
tained in  the 
open  market 
in  great 
quantities  at 
any  time. 

Can  be  ob- 
tained on  15 
days'  notice. 

Can  be  ob- 
tained on 
3  months' 
notice. 

Cannot  be 
obtained  on 
3  months' 
notice. 

Infantry: 
Signal  supplies    . 

$     793.12 
51,983.35 

$  1,688.51 
54,054.45 

$     6,030.46 
3,177,083.47 

$   385,310.26 

Ordnance  supplies    . 
Medical  supplies       . 

5,779.67 
10,997.95 

7,730.96 
10,189.63 

257,489-89 
88,861.51 

4,164,770.68 

Cavalry: 
Signal  supplies    .     . 

$     370  .  80 

55,102  48 

$  1,638.53 

$       4,290.61 
4  584  628  93 

$   *77,i56.43 

Engineer  supplies 

Ordnance  supplies    . 
Medical  supplies 

31,862.02 
13,454.09 

18,630.56 
13,060.57 

311,056.68 
108,630.36 

3,541,004.68 

MILITARY  POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES  25 

62.  While  the  amount  of  money  involved  is  large,  practically 
all  of  it  will  remain  at  home,  especially  if  every  effort  be  made 
by  the  supply  bureaus  to  eliminate  from  supply  tables  all 
articles  not  of  domestic  manufacture.  It  must  also  be  kept 
in  mind  that  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  war  supplies  in  time  of  peace 
than  in  time  of  war. 

The  remainder  of  this  Statement  of  a  Proper  Military  Policy 
for  the  United  States  is  devoted  to  a  discussion  as  follows : 

Part    II.    The  Organized  Militia. 

Part  III.     Reserves. 

Part   IV.    Volunteers. 


"  I  am  very  much  pleased  with  the  increased  interest  in  the  military  prepara- 
tion and  needs  of  our  country  lately  taken  not  only  by  the  students  of  Yale 
University  but  by  students  of  many  other  universities  and  colleges  and  by  the 
educated  people  throughout  the  country.  I  am  sure  that,  if  our  citizens  only 
knew  more  about  the  subject  of  national  defenses,  and  the  ways  and  means 
vital  and  necessary  to  be  properly  prepared,  the  War  Department  would  not 
have  to  beg  consideration  of  its  projects,  but  the  people  themselves  would  de- 
mand their  carrying  out.  I  believe  it  is  the  duty  of  all  true  citizens  of  our 
country  to  familiarize  themselves  with  this  subject,  as  upon  the  mere  fact  whether 
or  not  the  country  is  adequately  prepared  for  war  may  depend  the  continued 
peace  and  prosperity  of  the  nation  and  even  their  own  lives  as  well. 

"  The  subjects  of  military  policy,  military  organization,  and  the  true  military 
history  of  our  country  should  be  included  in  the  university  and  college  cur- 
riculum. This  is  necessary  to  the  complete  education  of  a  well  equipped  citizen 
in  order  that  he  may  form  just  and  true  opinions  on  military  subjects  and  be 
able  to  judge  for  himself  just  what  is  necessary  in  this  respect  for  the  proper 
safeguarding  of  the  nation  and  the  means  to  effect  same." — HON.  LINDLEY  M. 
GARRISON,  Secretary  of  War,  at  Yale  University. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 

CONGRESS  meets  its  constitutional  obligation  "to  provide 
for  the  common  defense,"  by  creating  and  maintaining  land  and 
naval  forces,  i.e.,  the  Army  and  the  Navy. 

The  President  is  the  constitutional  Commander-in-chief  of 
both  forces.  He  places  parts  of  the  Army  and  separate  armies 
under  commanders,  subordinate  to  his  general  command.  The 
President  exercises  this  command  through  the  Secretary  of  War 
and  the  Chief  of  Staff.  The  Secretary  of  War  directly  repre- 
sents the  President  and  acts  in  conformity  to  his  policies. 
Under  the  law  his  acts,  orders,  and  instructions  are  the  acts, 
orders,  and  instructions  of  the  President. 

The  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  Army  are  promul- 
gated to  it  in  the  following  language:  "The  President  of  the 
United  States  directs  that  the  following  regulations  for  the 
Army  be  published  for  the  government  of  all  concerned,  and 
that  they  be  strictly  observed.  Nothing  contrary  to  the  tenor 
of  these  regulations  will  be  enjoined  in  any  part  of  the  forces  of 
the  United  States  by  any  commander  whomsoever.'* 

These  regulations  comprise  123  Articles  of  War  and  1,573 
paragraphs  of  regulations  covering  every  phase  of  military 
routine. 

Officers  and  enlisted  men  subscribe  to  an  oath  to  bear  true 
faith  and  allegiance  to  the  United  States  of  America;  to  serve 
them  honestly  and  faithfully  against  all  their  enemies  whom- 
soever; and  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  orders  of  the  officers  appointed  over  them  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  and  articles  of  war. 

26 


THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY  27 

The  military  system  of  the  United  States  is  based  upon 
voluntary  enlistment  in  a  small  standing  Army  and  upon  Vol- 
unteers and  National  Guard  as  occasion  may  require. 

The  original  Army  in  1790  consisted  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery,  aggregating  1,273  troops  or  one  soldier  to  3,100 
population.  This  ratio  is  now  one  soldier  to  900  population. 
Auxiliary  forces  and  non-combatant  troops  have  been  included 
in  the  Army  from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  advances  in  the  Art 
and  Science  of  Warfare  until  to-day,  in  addition  to  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  artillery,  our  Army  is  composed  of  the  various 
Administration,  Staff,  Supply,  and  Sanitary  Departments  and 
troops  and  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps,  Engineer  Corps,  Signal 
Corps,  and  Aviation  Section. 

Recent  legislation  for  preparedness  for  the  National  Defense 
is  the  harbinger  of  a  new  military  system  destined  to  place  this 
country  on  a  basis  of  adequate  military  preparedness  unless  our 
population  again  relax  into  chicken  heartedness  and  indifference 
toward  the  vital  elements  of  Nationhood. 

The  Army  is  undergoing  many  radical  changes  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  Army  Reorganization  Act  approved 
June  3,  1916.  The  Army  of  the  United  States  by  this  Act 
consists  of  the  Regular  Army,  the  Volunteer  Army,  the  Offi- 
cers' Reserve  Corps,  the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps,  the  National 
Guard  while  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  and  such  other 
land  forces  as  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be  authorized  by  law. 

The  actual  peace  strength  and  organization  of  the  Regular 
Army,  prior  to  the  Columbus  Raid  was  approximately  as  set 
forth  in  the  table  on  page  28.  Folio  whig  this  raid,  Congress  by 
resolution  authorized  an  increase  of  20,000  enlisted  men.  A 
Punitive  Expedition  entered  Mexican  territory  in  pursuit  of 
these  military  bandits. 

The  National  Defense  Act  of  June  3,  1916,  contemplates  an 
organization,  strength,  tactical  units  and  disposition  of  troops 
approximately  as  set  forth  in  the  table  on  reverse  of  military 
and  naval  map  in  pouch  of  cover. 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


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counted  as  part  of  the  streng 

THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY  29 

THE  OFFICERS'  RESERVE  CORPS 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  a  reserve  of  officers  available  for 
service  as  temporary  officers  in  the  Regular  Army,  as  officers 
of  the  Quartermaster  Corps,  as  officers  of  other  Staff  Corps  and 
Departments,  as  officers  for  Recruit  Rendezvous  and  Depots, 
and  as  officers  of  Volunteers,  there  is  being  organized  under  this 
act  an  Officers'  Reserve  Corps  of  the  Regular  Army. 

This  Corps  will  consist  of  sections  corresponding  to  the  vari- 
ous arms,  staff  corps,  and  departments  of  the  Regular  Army. 
Its  members  are  not  subject  to  call  for  service  in  time  of  peace. 
The  President  appoints  and  commissions  these  officers  for 
periods  of  five  years  in  all  grades  up  to  and  including  that  of 
Major  from  such  citizens  as  shall  be  found  physically,  mentally, 
and  morally  qualified  to  hold  such  commissions.  All  persons 
now  duly  qualified  and  registered  for  commissions  in  the  Volun- 
teer Army  are  eligible  for  a  period  of  three  years  for  appointment 
in  the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps  without  further  examination 
except  a  physical  examination. 

On  June  3, 1917,  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps  as  now  consti- 
tuted by  law  will  cease  to  exist.  Members  thereof  may  then 
be  commissioned  in  the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps. 

In  time  of  threatened  or  actual  hostilities  the  President  may 
order  officers  of  the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps  to  temporary 
active  duty. 

The  Secretary  of  War  is  authorized  to  order  Reserve  Officers 
to  duty  with  troops  or  at  field  exercises  or  for  instruction  for 
periods  not  to  exceed  fifteen  days  of  any  calendar  year,  and  while 
so  serving  such  officers  receive  the  pay  and  allowances  of  their 
respective  grade  in  the  Regular  Army.  With  the  consent  of 
the  Reserve  Officers,  and  within  the  limit  of  funds  available 
for  the  purpose,  such  periods  of  duty  may  be  extended  by  the 
Secretary  of  War. 

The  President  has  authority  to  establish  and  maintain  in 
civil  educational  institutions  a  Reserve  Officers'  Training  Corps 


30  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

consisting  of  a  senior  division  at  universities  and  colleges  and 
military  schools  under  certain  restrictions  and  a  junior  division 
at  other  educational  institutions. 

Military  instruction  and  training  by  Army  officers  is  greatly 
extended  by  this  Act,  with  a  view  to  supplying  the  thousands 
of  additional  officers  required  in  time  of  war. 

The  President  is  also  authorized  to  appoint  and  commission 
certain  Reserve  Officers  as  temporary  Second  Lieutenants  of 
the  Regular  Army  for  purposes  of  instruction  for  a  period  not 
to  exceed  six  months  with  allowances  of  a  Second  Lieutenant 
but  with  pay  of  only  $100  per  month. 

MILITAEY    TRAINING   CAMPS 

The  Secretary  of  War  is  authorized  to  maintain  upon  military 
reservations  or  elsewhere  camps  for  military  instruction  and 
training  of  such  citizens  as  may  be  selected  upon  their  applica- 
tion and  under  terms  of  enlistment  and  regulations  prescribed 
by  him. 

THE   ENLISTED   RESERVE   CORPS 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  an  additional  reserve  of  enlisted 
men  for  military  service  with  the  Engineer,  Signal,  and  Quarter- 
master Corps  and  the  Ordnance  and  Medical  Departments  of 
the  Regular  Army,  an  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  is  provided  for  to 
consist  of  such  number  of  enlisted  men  of  such  grade  or  grades  as 
may  be  designated  by  the  President. 

Service  in  the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  is  for  periods  of  four 
years  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  years.  Membership  is 
contingent  upon  passing  a  satisfactory  physical,  educational, 
and  practical  examination  and  is  by  certificate  issued  by  the 
Adjutant  General  of  the  Army.  Members  and  those  who  have 
attended  at  least  one  encampment  for  the  military  instruction 
of  citizens  are  furnished  free  a  rosette  or  knot  to  wear  with 
civilian  clothing. 

This  membership  offers  an  attractive  and  beneficial  associa- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


31 


tion  and  attendance  at  summer  camp  of  instruction  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  government. 

The  various  branches  of  service,  Staff  Corps,  rank  of  officers,  and 
grade  of  enlisted  men  are  distinguished  by  color  of  facings,  style 
of  uniform,  collar  ornaments,  cap  and  hat  devices,  braid  and  chev- 
rons of  sleeve,  etc.  The  proper  uniform,  military  medals,  badges, 
etc.,  for  various  occasions  is  set  forth  in  uniform  regulations. 

The  important  marks  of  distinction  except  as  to  the  distin- 
guishing color  of  facings,  etc.,  are  illustrated  in  table  of  Army 
organization  (see  separate  chart). 

The  President,  in  July,  1916,  called  out  the  Militia  and  the 
Army  Reserves  for  emergency  duty  along  the  Mexican  border. 
This  mobilization  has  been  most  timely  in  determining  the  exact 
condition  of  the  National  Guard  as  to  equipment,  physical  con- 
dition, and  proficiency  as  well  as  the  insignificance  of  the  present 
Army  Reserve. 

The  actual  strength  of  the  Army  and  ratio  of  soldiers  to  popu- 
lation and  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  War  Department  are  set 
forth  in  the  following  tables  by  courtesy  of  Frederic  Louis 
Huidekoper,  historian,  and  author  of  "The  Military  Unpre- 
paredness  of  the  United  States,"  pages  276-278. 


Year 

Population 
of  the 
United  States 

Actual  strength 
of  the 
Regular  Army 

Number  of  soldiers 
per  1,000  of 
population 

1790 

3,929,214 

1,273 

0.324 

1800 

5,308,483 

4,436 

0.833 

1810 

7,239,881 

9,921 

1.378 

1820 

9,633,822 

8,942 

0.927 

1830 

12,866,020 

5,951 

0.462 

1840 

17,069,453 

10,570 

0.602 

1850 

23,191,876 

10,763 

0.421 

1860 

31,443,321 

16,367 

0.520 

1870 

38,558,371 

37,075 

0.963 

1880 

50,155,783 

26,509 

0.527 

1890 

62,947,714 

27,095 

0.430 

1900 

76,303,387 

68,155 

0.895 

1910 

93,402,151 

77,035 

0.825 

MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


Period 


Condition 


Cost 


1791-1811  Peace $  5,669,930.65 

1812-1816  Including  the  War  of  1812 82.627,009 . 14 

1817-1835  Minor  Indian  Wars.  Army  averaging  under 

6,000  officers  and  men 90,411,068.59 

1836-1843  Florida  War 69,751,611.11 

1843-1845  Peace,  the  Army  reduced 13,873,146 . 89 

1846-1849  Including  the  Mexican  War 88,500,208 . 38 

1850-1800  Peace,  the  Army  reduced 168,079,707 . 57 

1861-1865  Including  the  War  of  the  Rebellion 2,736,570,923 . 50 

1866-1869  Forces  large  on  account  of  French  occupation 

of  Mexico 583,749,510.99 

1870-1897  Peace.  The  Army  reduced 1,211,321,300.94 

1898-1899  Including  the  Spanish-American  War 321,833,254 .76 

1900-1902  Including  the  Philippine  War 391,662,681 . 06 

1902-1914  Peace.  The  Army  reduced 1,693,920,509 . 96 

Total  cost  since  1790 $7,457,970,863.54 

Total  cost  to  pensions  since  1790  to  1914 $4,729,957,370 . 94 


"  Militarism  is  not  determined  by  chance  or  circumstances,  but  by  the  definite 
policy  of  a  state  seeking  world  power  and  world  domination.  It  is  a  sad  com- 
mentary upon  the  spirit  of  our  nation  if  we  must  refuse  to  possess  ourselves  of 
power  for  fear  that  in  the  possession  we  may  prostitute  that  power  to  unworthy 
and  ignoble  ends.  If  this  is  true  of  our  country  at  large,  then  no  individual 
in  our  land  should  be  entrusted  with  power  in  our  business,  professional,  political, 
or  social  life.  The  glory  of  power  is  revealed  through  restraint.  I  have  suffi- 
cient confidence  in  the  spirit  of  our  Nation,  in  our  traditions  of  justice,  in  our 
moral  integrity,  in  the  sincerity  of  our  public  pledges,  in  the  freedom  from  the 
mania  of  imperial  power  and  territorial  acquisition,  so  that  I  have  no  fear  that 
our  Nation  will  ever  be  betrayed  by  the  false  ambition  of  militarism  to  wage  an 
unjust  and  unrighteous  war  in  an  unworthy  cause." — DR.  JOHN  GRIER  HIBBEN, 
President  of  Princeton  University,  in  the  February,  1916,  issue  of  American 
Defense,  published  for  the  American  Defense  Society. 


CHAPTER  IH 

THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  AND  THE  SECRETARY 

OF  WAR 

THE  Secretary  of  War,  directs  the  affairs 
of  the  War  Department  as  a  member  of  the 
President's  Cabinet.  He  is  directly  re- 
sponsible to  the  President  for  the  efficiency  of 
the  military  establishment,  the  proficiency  of 
the  organizations  that  make  up  the  Army. 

He  supervises  estimates  for  army  appro- 
priations, purchases  of  army  supplies  and  expenditures  for  the 
support,  transportation,  and  maintenance  of  the  army,  and  for 
certain  civil  appropriations  including  the  Panama  Canal  and 
River  and  Harbor  improvements,  in  all  exceeding  $300,000,000 
for  the  fiscal  year  1916-17. 

He  has  supervision  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
and  military  education  hi  the  Army,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance 
and  Fortifications,  of  the  various  battlefield  commissions  and 
publication  of  the  Rebellion  records. 

He  has  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  National  Defense 
and  Seacoast  Fortifications,  Army  Ordnance,  the  prevention  of 
obstruction  to  navigation,  the  establishment  of  harbor  lines 
and  all  plans  and  locations  of  bridges,  authorized  by  Congress, 
over  navigable  waters,  and  of  the  establishment  or  abandon- 
ment of  military  posts. 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARY  OP  WAR 

To  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War  is  assigned  the  general 
direction  and  supervision  of  all  matters  relating  to  rivers  and  har- 

83 


34  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

bors;  bridges  over  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States;  leases, 
revocable  licenses  and  all  other  privileges  upon  lands  under 
the  control  of  the  War  Department;  inspections  relating  to  the 
military  establishment;  recruiting  service;  discharges,  commuta- 
tion of  rations,  court-martial,  and  other  questions  relating  to 
enlisted  men,  including  clemency  cases  and  matters  relating  to 
prisoners  at  the  Disciplinary  Barracks  and  penitentiaries.  He 
has  charge  of  routine  matters  relating  to  the  militia;  the  pro- 
motion of  rifle  practice;  the  supervision  of  miscellaneous  claims 
and  accounts;  matters  relating  to  national  cemeteries,  boards 
of  survey,  open-market  purchases,  and  medals  of  honor. 

In  the  absence  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  War  acts  in  his  place.  In  the  absence  of  both  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  the  Chief 
of  Staff  acts  as  Secretary  of  War  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  thirty 
days,  by  direction  of  the  President. 


ASSISTANT  AND   CHIEF  CLERK 

The  Assistant  and  Chief  Clerk  of  the  War  Department 
has  charge  of  the  records  and  files,  the  supervision  of  the 
receipt,  distribution,  and  transmission  of  the  official  mail  and 
correspondence  of  that  office,  and  is  charged  with  the  adminis- 
trative action  required  by  law  to  be  taken  hi  connection  with 
the  settlement  of  disbursing  officers'  accounts  that  do  not  re- 
late to  the  different  staff  corps  of  the  Army.  He  has  general 
supervision  of  matters  relating  to  civilian  employees  in  and  under 
the  War  Department;  the  printing,  binding  and  advertising; 
the  department's  telegraph  and  telephone  service,  stationery 
and  rental  of  buildings. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  Hon.  Lindley 
M.  Garrison,  for  the  years  of  1914-15  set  forth  many  interesting 
facts  concerning  the  prevailing  conditions  in  the  Army  and  the 
military  policy. 

A  large  part  of  the  Army  has  been  occupied  in  actual  field  ser- 


THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  35 

vice  in  Galveston,  Vera  Cruz,  all  along  the  Mexican-U.  S.  border 
and  in  Colorado  and  Arkansas.  The  health  reports  of  the  Army 
during  these  years  show  a  reduction  of  nearly  twenty  per  cent, 
in  the  non-effectives  from  sickness  and  injury. 

A  number  of  officers  were  sent  to  Europe  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  War  to  aid  American  refugees  in  getting  home,  and  as  mili- 
tary observers  and  attaches. 

The  Students'  and  Business  Men's  Camps  of  Instruction  are 
reported  as  being  very  successful,  and  undoubtedly  can  and  will 
develop  as  an  important  military  asset  to  the  country. 

In  1914  a  complete  organization  of  the  government  of  the 
Canal  Zone  was  put  into  effect,  Major  General  George  W. 
Goethals  being  continued  as  Governor.  The  canal  was  opened 
for  business  in  1916. 

As  to  a  military  policy  for  the  U.  S.  the  following  is  quoted: 
"Every  one  desires  peace,  just  as  every  one  desires  wealth,  con- 
tentment, affection,  sufficient  means  for  comfortable  existence 
and  other  similarly  beneficent  things.  But  peace  and  the  other 
states  of  being  just  mentioned  are  not  always  or  even  often 
solely  within  one's  own  control.  Those  who  are  thoughtful  and 
have  courage  face  the  facts  of  life,  take  lessons  from  experience 
and  strive  by  wise  conduct  to  attain  the  desirable  things  and  by 
provision  and  precaution  to  protect  and  defend  them  when 
obtained.  It  may  truthfully  be  said  that  eternal  vigilance  is 
the  price  which  must  be  paid  in  order  to  obtain  the  desirable 
things  of  life  and  to  defend  them. 

"In  collective  affairs  the  interest  of  the  group  are  confided  to 
the  Government  and  it  thereupon  is  charged  with  the  duty  to 
preserve  and  defend  these  things.  The  Government  must 
exercise  for  the  Nation  the  precautionary,  defensive,  and  pre- 
servative measures  necessary  to  that  end.  All  governments 
must  therefore  have  force — physical  force — i.e.,  military  force, 
for  these  purposes.  The  question  for  each  Nation  when  this 
matter  is  under  consideration  is,  how  much  force  should  it  have 
and  of  what  should  that  force  consist? 


36  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

"In  the  early  history  of  our  Nation  there  was  a  natural,  almost 
inevitable,  abhorrance  of  military  force,  because  it  connoted 
military  despotism.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  early  settlers  in 
this  country  came  from  nations  where  a  few  powerful  persons 
tyrannically  imposed  their  will  upon  the  people  by  means  of 
military  power.  The  consequence  was  that  the  oppressed  who 
fled  to  this  country  necessarily  connected  military  force  with 
despotism  and  had  a  dread  thereof.  No  reasonable  person  in 
this  country  to-day  has  the  slightest  shadow  of  fear  of  military 
despotism  nor  of  any  interference  whatever  by  military  force 
in  the  conduct  of  civil  affairs.  The  military  and  the  civil  are 
just  as  completely  and  permanently  separated  in  this  country 
as  the  Church  and  the  State  are,  the  subjection  of  the  military 
to  the  civil  is  settled  and  unchangeable.  The  only  reason  for 
reverting  to  the  obsolete  condition  is  to  anticipate  the  action  of 
those  who  will  cite  from  the  works  of  the  founders  of  the  Re- 
public excerpts  showing  a  dread  of  military  ascendancy  in  our 
Government.  At  the  present  time  such  expressions  are  en- 
tirely inapplicable  and  do  not  furnish  even  a  presentable  pretext 
for  opposing  proper  military  preparation. 

"It  also  seems  proper  in  passing  to  refer  to  the  frame  of  mind 
of  those  who  use  the  word  'militarism'  as  the  embodiment  of 
the  doctrine  of  brute  force  and  loosely  apply  it  to  any  organized 
preparation  of  military  force  and  therefore  deprecate  any  ade- 
quate military  preparation  because  it  is  a  step  in  the  direction 
of  the  contemned  'militarism.'  It  is  perfectly  apparent  to 
any  one  who  approaches  the  matter  with  an  unprejudiced  mind 
that  what  constitutes  undesirable  militarism  as  distinguished 
from  a  necessary,  proper,  and  adequate  preparation  of  the  mili- 
tary resources  of  the  Nation  depends  upon  the  position  in  which 
each  nation  finds  itself  and  varies  with  every  nation  and  with 
different  conditions  in  each  nation  at  different  times.  Every 
nation  must  have  adequate  force  to  protect  itself  from  domestic 
insurrections,  to  enforce  its  laws  and  to  repel  invasions.  The 
Constitution  obligates  the  United  States  to  protect  each  state 


THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  37 

against  invasion.  If  it  prepares  and  maintains  more  military 
force  than  is  necessary  for  the  purposes  just  named,  then  it  is 
subject  to  the  conviction,  in  the  public  opinion  of  the  world, 
of  having  embraced  'militarism,'  unless  it  intends  aggression 
for  a  cause  which  the  public  opinion  of  the  world  conceives  to  be 
a  righteous  one.  To  the  extent,  however,  that  it  confines  its 


Sj  ft.  fly;  4i  ft.  hoist 

Colors  of  the  Secretary  of  War 

Scarlet  Silk,  Blue  Coat  of  Arms,  White  Stare 

Colors  of  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  War 

White  Silk,  Blue  Coat  of  Arms,  Red  Stars 

military  preparedness  to  the  purpose  first  mentioned  there  is 
neither  warrant  nor  justification  in  characterizing  such  action 
as  'militarism.' 

"Unless  this  Nation  has  reached  the  conclusion  that  it  has  no 


38  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

need  for  the  preparation  of  its  military  resources  for  the  purposes 
enumerated,  then  we  must  earnestly  address  ourselves  to  the 
question  of  such  proper  preparation. 

"In  continental  United  States  we  have  a  territory  consisting 
of  3,026,789  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  98,781,324.  In 
Alaska  we  have  590,884s  quare  miles  with  a  population  of  64,356. 
Our  other  territorial  responsibilities  which  must  be  considered 
are :  the  Panama  Canal,  where,  although  the  population  is  small, 
we  have  an  investment  of  $400,000,000  and  the  destruction  of 
which  waterway  would  be  an  international  calamity;  Hawaii, 
with  6,449  square  miles  and  a  population  of  191,909;  Porto  Rico, 
with  3,606  square  miles  and  a  population  of  1,118,012;  the 
Philippine  Islands,  with  127,800  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  7,635,426  together  with  certain  other  islands  not  necessary 
to  be  considered  hi  this  connection. 

"By  intensive  military  training  any  young  man  of  good  health 
and  average  mentality  can  be  made  a  serviceable  soldier  in 
twelve  months  and  in  fact  has  been  so  made. 

"I  am  not  so  much  concerned  with  the  length  of  enlistment, 
provided  the  Secretary  of  War  is  given  the  power  to  discharge 
into  the  reserve  at  the  end  of  twelve  months  those  who  have 
shown  themselves  proficient  up  to  a  required  standard. 

"  I  am  convinced  with  equal  firmness  that  we  should  adopt  some 
one  or  more  of  the  methods  which  have  been  suggested  for  the 
training  of  more  civilians  to  become  officers  in  case  of  necessity. 
The  potentiality  of  the  student  military  camps  and  of  the 
schools  and  colleges  at  which  military  training  is  obtainable 
suggests  a  fruitful  source  of  accomplishing  this  purpose. 

"If  we  are  authorized  to  use  this  exceedingly  valuable  nucleus 
to  produce  the  reserve  needed,  there  never  was  a  time  when  the 
experiment  had  so  great  a  chance  of  success  as  now.  Both 
the  enlisted  personnel  and  the  officers  furnish  a  school  of  un- 
exampled excellence  for  just  such  work." 

The  functions  of  the  Secretary  of  War  as  relate  to  the  supply, 
payment,  and  recruitment  of  the  Army,  and  direction  of  the  ex- 


THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  39 

penditures  of  the  appropriations  for  its  support;  the  determina- 
tion where  and  how  particular  supplies  shall  be  purchased,  de- 
livered, inspected,  stored,  and  distributed  are  exercised  through 
the  Chief  of  Staff  and  Staff  Bureaus  of  the  War  Department. 

The  Staff  Bureaus  are  the  General  Staff  Corps,  The  Chief  of 
Staff,  the  Adjutant  General's  Department,  the  Inspector  Gen- 
eral's Department,  the  Judge  Advocate  General's  Department, 
the  Quartermaster's  Corps,  the  Medical  Corps,  the  Engineer 
Corps,  the  Ordnance  Department,  the  Signal  Corps,  the  Bureau 
of  Insular  Affairs,  and  the  Militia  Bureau.  These  Bureaus  have 
offices  in  the  State,  War  and  Navy  building  at  Washington. 

The  Chiefs  of  the  Bureaus  are  selected  by  the  President  for 
periods  of  four  years.  They  have  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General, 
except  the  Chief  of  Staff,  the  Chief  of  Coast  Artillery  Corps, 
the  present  Chiefs  of  the  Medical  Corps,  the  Quartermaster 
Corps,  and  the  Militia  Bureau,  who  have  the  rank  of  Major 
General. 

ALASKA 

One  of  the  important  civil  as  well  as  military  functions  of  the 
War  Department  has  been  its  work  in  Alaska,  in  opening  that 
treasure  land  to  American  settlement  and  development,  and 
in  maintaining  law  and  order. 

Col.  W.  P.  Richardson,  U.  S.  Infantry,  President,  Board  of 
Road  Commissioners  of  Alaska,  since  1905,  modestly  explains 
the  tranquility  prevailing  throughout  that  territory  as  due  to 
the  practice  in  early  days  of  requiring  all  newcomers  to  deposit 
their  firearms  with  the  Army,  "for  safe  keeping."  He  has  been 
the  Government  Constructing  Engineer  in  Alaska  and  points 
with  pride  to  the  many  unparallelled  obstacles  which  have  been 
met  and  overcome  in  road  building.  There  have  been  no  rebel- 
lious peoples  to  overcome  in  Alaska — no  hostile  tribes  to  subdue. 
The  warfare  has  been  against  Nature's  obstacles  only. 

Alaska  was  practically  unknown  outside  of  a  small  section 
surrounding  the  old  capital  of  Sitka  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 


40  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  the  wonderfully  rich  placer  deposit  of  gold  in  1896,  known  as 
the  Klondike,  in  the  Canadian  Yukon  region,  a  short  distance 
beyond  the  boundary  line.  The  extraordinary  richness  of  de- 
posit, buried  deep  under  the  frost  in  the  heart  of  the  far 
north  stirred  men  more  than  any  similar  discovery  since  that  in 
California  in  1849.  Miners,  prospectors,  and  adventurers  from 
every  part  of  the  world  turned  their  faces  toward  this  new  El 
Dorado. 

With  incredible  hardship  and  labor,  they  packed  and  dragged 
their  supplies  and  belongings  over  the  steep  Chilkat  Pass  during 
the  winter  of  '97—8  to  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Yukon,  and 
there  built  boats  and  rafts  of  every  description.  With  the  open- 
ing of  navigation  in  the  spring  of  '98,  they  floated  down  the 
Yukon  to  Dawson  to  the  number  of  twenty -five  or  thirty  thou- 
sand. The  camp  at  Nome  on  Bering  Sea  was  also  established 
in  1898  and  Fairbanks  on  the  Tanana  River  in  1902. 

Following  a  long  established  precedent  in  the  opening  of  our 
frontiers,  the  Army  was  called  upon  to  examine  conditions  at- 
tending this  new  movement  of  people  to  a  wilderness  country, 
and  to  give  aid  and  protection.  The  detachments  of  the  Army 
stationed  in  Alaska  have  prevented  disorder,  established  and 
maintained  a  peaceful  condition  on  a  far-distant  frontier  and 
been  worth  their  weight  in  gold  to  that  country. 

The  military  cable  and  telegraph  system  connecting  Seattle 
with  the  principal  centres  in  Alaska  as  far  as  Nome  was  con- 
structed, and  is  now  operated  under  direction  of  the  Chief 
Signal  Officer  of  the  Army.  One  has  only  to  travel  on  the 
Yukon  or  along  the  line  across  country  and  see  the  wide  swath 
cut  through  the  timber  and  brushwood  over  mountain  passes 
and  across  valley  swamps  for  hundreds  of  miles,  to  appreciate 
the  value  and  magnitude  of  the  work  done  in  the  construction 
of  this  line. 

The  Board  of  Road  Commissioners  for  Alaska  came  into  ex- 
istence by  Act  of  Congress  in  1905.  Prior  to  that  time  there 
was  scarcely  the  semblance  of  road  or  trail  throughout  the  vast 


Road  building  in  Alaska 


Gatun  upper  locks,  west  chamber,  Canal  Zone 


New  disciplinary  barracks.     Old  military  prison 


Wings  3-6-7  have  doorless  cells 


Wings  3-4-5 


Auditorium 


THE  WAR  DEPARTMENT  41 

territory.  Travel  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  water- 
ways in  summer  and  over  their  frozen  surfaces  in  the  interior  in 
winter.  The  interior  is  intersected  by  numerous  swift  and  deep 
streams  fed  during  the  warm  summer  by  the  melting  glaciers  and 
winter  snows  of  the  mountains.  These  make  travel  across  the 
country  difficult  and  hazardous.  The  valleys  are  usually  frozen 
to  great  depth,  the  surface  thawing  in  summer  transforms  them 
into  morass  and  swamps  to  struggle  through  which  is  a  slow, 
dangerous,  and  laborious  process.  This  Board,  during  its  brief 
existence,  has  constructed  over  900  miles  of  wagon  road  and 
about  2,800  miles  of  winter  sled  road  and  trail. 

No  other  agency  of  the  Government  is  more  competent  by 
its  organization  and  past  history,  or  better  equipped  for  such 
tasks  in  a  wilderness  country,  than  the  Army. 

The  lines  of  communication  and  routes  of  travel  are  the  begin- 
ning of  a  system  which  will  greatly  facilitate  the  development 
and  settlement  of  the  territory  and  serve  as  instruments  in  any 
scheme  of  national  defense.  The  experience  gained  by  officers 
and  men  in  such  work  forms  a  valuable  addition  to  their  military 
training. 


"I  know  not  what  other  men  may  think  of  this  situation,  but  as  for  myself 
I  should  feel  that  the  blood  of  our  ancestors  who  fell  at  Bunker  Hill  and  Long 
Island,  at  Saratoga  and  Yorktown  in  the  winning  of  our  independence  had  been 
spilled  hi  vain  if  the  future  before  us  after  all  is  simply  to  exist  on  the  sufferance 
of  other  nations. 

"With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  toward  all  our  unhappy  brethren 
beyond  the  seas,  with  a  determination  to  extend  every  aid  to  their  suffering 
members,  we  must  insist  that  we  have  a  right  to  safeguard  our  own  independence 
of  action  and  thought  by  the  creation  of  a  military  power  and  industrial  system 
sufficient  for  our  defense." — From  an  address  delivered  by  DR.  EDMUND  J. 
JAMES,  President  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  before  the  Economic  Club  of 
New  York,  February  25th,  1916. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS— THE  CHIEF  OF 

STAFF 

THE  General  Staff  Corps  is  the  advisory 
board  to  the  President  and  the  Secretary  of 
War.  It  was  created  by  Act  of  Congress, 
February  14,1903,  upon  the  recommendation 
of  Honorable  Elihu  Root,  then  Secretary  of 
War.  It  has  developed  into  a  fitting  testi- 
monial to  his  constructive  military  states- 
manship. 

As  amended  by  the  Act  of  June  3,  1916,  the  General  Staff 
Corps  will  be  increased  in  five  annual  increments  July  1,  1916- 
July  1,  1920,  to  a  total  of  55  officers,  as  follows:  a  Chief  of  Staff 
with  rank  of  Major  General;  two  general  officers  of  the  line, 
one  of  whom,  a  Brigadier  General,  shall  be  President  of  the  Army 
War  College;  ten  Colonels;  ten  Lieutenant  Colonels;  fifteen 
Majors  and  seventeen  Captains  detailed  from  corresponding 
grades  in  the  Army  for  periods  of  four  years.  The  Chief  of 
the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  and  the  Chief  of  the  Militia  Bureau 
are  additional  members  of  the  General  Staff  Corps. 

Upon  being  relieved  from  duty  in  the  General  Staff  Corps 
officers  are  returned  to  the  branch  of  the  Army  in  which  they 
hold  permanent  commissions  and  no  officer  shall  be  eligible 
to  a  further  detail  in  the  General  Staff  Corps  until  he  has  served 
two  years  with  troops,  except  in  time  of  actual  or  threatened 
hostilities. 

Officers  of  this  Corps  are  exclusively  employed  in  the  study 

42 


THE  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS  43 

of  military  problems,  the  preparation  of  plans  for  the  national 
defense,  and  the  utilization  of  the  military  forces  in  time  of  war, 
in  investigating  and  reporting  upon  the  efficiency  and  state  of 
preparedness  of  such  forces  for  service  in  peace  or  war,  or  on 
appropriate  General  Staff  duties  in  connection  with  troops  in- 
cluding the  National  Guard,  or  as  military  attaches  to  foreign 
countries,  or  on  other  duties,  not  of  an  administrative  nature. 

Its  personnel,  excepting  general  officers,  are  selected  by  a  board 
of  five  officers  not  below  the  rank  of  Colonel. 

The  General  Staff  Corps  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  studying 
possible  theatres  of  war  and  of  strategic  questions  in  general; 
with  the  collection  of  military  information  of  foreign  countries 
and  of  our  own;  the  preparation  of  plans  of  campaign  or  reports 
of  campaigns,  battles,  engagements,  and  expeditions;  and  of 
technical  histories  of  military  operations  of  the  United  States 
and  plans  for  going  from  a  status  of  peace  to  one  of  war. 
The  work  of  this  body  of  officers  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  the 
service  and  exercises  the  strongest  influence  hi  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  Army.  It  has  done  more  toward  making  our 
Army  efficient  than  any  other  influence  in  recent  years. 

The  peace  strength  of  the  Army  as  now  authorized  is  prac- 
tically that  determined  by  the  War  College  Division  of  the 
General  Staff  Corps  as  set  forth  in  table  on  back  of  military 
and  naval  map. 

The  President's  command  of  the  Army  is  exercised  through 
the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  Chief  of  Staff.  The  Chief  of  Staff 
reports  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  acts  as  his  military  adviser, 
receives  from  him  directions  and  orders  given  in  behalf  of  the 
President,  and  gives  effect  thereto  in  the  prescribed  manner. 
The  Chief  of  Staff  is  detailed  by  the  President  from  Major 
Generals  of  the  line  of  the  Army.  The  successful  performance 
of  the  duties  of  this  position  requires  what  the  title  denotes — a 
relation  of  absolute  confidence  and  personal  accord  and  sym- 
pathy between  the  Chief  of  Staff  and  the  President,  and  be- 
tween the  Chief  of  Staff  and  the  Secretary  of  War.  For  this 


44  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

reason,  without  any  reflection  whatever,  upon  the  officer  detailed 
the  detail  will  in  every  case  cease,  unless  sooner  terminated, 
on  the  day  following  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  office  of  the 
President  by  whom  the  detail  is  made. 

The  Chief  of  Staff  is  charged  as  limited  and  provided  by 
law  with  the  duty  of  supervising,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  all  troops  of  the  line,  and  of  the  Staff  of  the 
Army. 

Major  General  Hugh  L.  Scott,  the  present  Chief  of  Staff  has 
been  sent  by  the  President  on  special  missions  to  quell  Indian 
outbreaks  and  to  confer  with  Mexican  factional  leaders  along 
the  Mexican  border.  He  has  a  knowledge  of  the  American 
Indian  not  possessed  by  any  other  living  white  man.  He  con- 
verses readily  with  most  all  tribes  of  Indians  by  their  sign 
language.  The  Indians  call  him  "The  White  Father.1*  Gen- 
eral Scott  was  Acting  Secretary  of  War  ad  interim  for  30  days 
during  1916. 

The  following  facts  of  general  interest  are  transcribed  from 
the  annual  report  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  June  30, 1915 : 

"A  garrison  of  regiments  and  organizations  at  full  statutory 
strength  was  maintained  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  concen- 
trated in  the  vicinity  of  Manila.  Work  progressed  satisfactorily 
upon  the  fortification  of  Manila  Bay.  The  Philippine  Island  gar- 
rison has  been  so  concentrated  as  to  be  useable  in  any  port  of 
the  Island  and  promptly  available  for  the  defense  of  Manila." 

"In  the  Hawaiian  Islands  about  one-half  of  the  total  garrison 
has  been  provided.  Barracks  and  quarters  are  being  con- 
structed as  rapidly  as  appropriations  permit.  Also  the  land 
and  seacoast  fortifications." 

"In  Panama  the  work  of  the  seacoast  fortifications  has  been 
rapidly  and  energetically  pushed.  Only  a  portion  of  the  garri- 
son has  been  sent  to  Panama  owing  to  the  absence  of  quarters." 

"The  question  of  the  defense  of  Guantanamo,  Cuba,  is  still 
under  consideration.  No  funds  have  been  appropriated  and  the 
project  has  not  been  formally  approved  by  Congress.  The 


THE  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS  45 

establishment  of  a  secure  and  sufficient  naval  base  at  this  point 
will  be  of  great  value  in  the  defense  of  the  Panama  Canal." 

"The  subject  of  desertion  is  an  ever  recurrent  one,  and  every 
effort  has  been  made  to  prevent  desertion  by  ameliorating  the 
condition  of  the  soldier  and  by  educating  him  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  crime,  but  it  still  goes  on,  and,  in  my  opinion,  it  will  go 
on  until  the  American  people  change  their  attitude  toward  deser- 
tion and  are  made  to  feel,  through  education,  that  desertion  is  a 
crime  against  the  nation  rather  than  a  mere  breach  of  contract 
between  individuals,  and  the  offender  is  made  to  feel  dis- 
graced among  his  friends  for  committing  such  a  crime  against  his 
country." 

BORDER  DUTY 

"  The  work  along  the  whole  Mexican  border  has  been  of  the 
most  difficult  character  for  the  last  three  years.  The  troops 
have  been  scattered  at  many  places,  sometimes  in  small  detach- 
ments and  sometimes  hi  larger,  for  nearly  2,000  miles.  They 
have  been  separated  from  their  families  and  put  individually 
at  great  expense,  but  no  complaint  has  been  made  and  no  overt 
action  has  been,  taken. 

"The  object  of  each  Mexican  faction  in  holding  these  border 
towns  was  twofold — first,  to  obtain  the  customs  receipts,  and, 
second,  to  use  the  United  States  territory  as  a  base  for  recruiting 
and  supply." 

SEACOAST   DEFENSES 

"The  last  comprehensive  report  upon  the  adequacy  of  our 
seacoast  defense  was  that  made  by  the  national  coast  defense 
board  on  February  1,  1906.  The  period  that  has  elapsed  since 
that  date  has  witnessed  such  marked  changes  in  naval  design, 
increasing  both  the  offensive  and  the  defensive  capabilities  of 
warships,  that  it  has  become  necessary  to  restudy  the  projects 
of  the  national  coast  defense  boards,  with  a  view  to  their  modi- 
fication to  meet  existing  conditions.  This  study  is  now  being 


46  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

made  by  the  War  Department  Board  of  Review.  In  accordance 
with  the  policy  adopted  by  the  department  during  the  past  year, 
the  large-caliber  direct-fire  guns  that  will  be  included  in  these 
revised  projects  will  be  of  16-inch  caliber.'* 

"The  full  effectiveness  of  the  existing  seacoast  armament 
cannot  be  attained  under  present  conditions  because  of  the  short- 
ages in  the  supply  of  the  essential  accessories,  such  as  ammuni- 
tion, searchlights  and  fire  control.  Of  the  latter  deficiencies, 
that  of  ammunition  is  the  most  serious,  as  the  total  supply  on 
hand  is  only  about  three-fourths  of  the  so-called  one  hour's 
allowance.  That  allowance  is  deemed  wholly  inadequate,  and 
no  material  measure  of  relief  will  be  afforded  unless  future  appro- 
priations for  ammunition  are  greatly  in  excess  of  the  annual 
appropriations  for  that  purpose  that  have  been  made  hereto- 
fore." 

"The  completion  of  the  submarine  mine  material  required 
for  the  mine  defenses  is  another  urgent  need.  This  material 
should  be  maintained  at  all  times  in  a  state  of  preparedness  for 
immediate  service,  as  naval  attack  upon  our  seacoast  cities 
may  occur  coincidently  with,  or  even  may  precede,  a  formal 
declaration  of  war." 


DEVELOPMENT   OF  LARGE-CALIBERED  MOBILE  ARTILLERY 

"The  history  of  war  will  show  almost  without  exception  that 
each  great  conflict  has  resulted  in  the  introduction  of  new  and 
powerful  weapons  and  devices  for  attack  and  defense.  Initial 
advantages  of  immense  import  have  been  gained  by  a  belliger- 
ent who  has  developed  some  new  innovation  against  which  no 
immediate  defense  was  adequate.  The  innovation  of  yester- 
day becomes  the  necessity  of  to-morrow.  The  present  gigantic 
conflict  waging  in  Europe  is  too  near  perspective  and  too  obscure 
in  detail  to  grasp  as  yet  all  its  manifold  lessons,  but  one  of  the 
great  outstanding  features  is  the  use  of  large-calibered  mobile 
artillery.'* 


THE  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS  47 


STUDENTS     MILITARY   INSTRUCTION   CAMPS 

"Aside  from  the  military  instruction  given  these  students  and 
business  men,  I  feel  that  the  interest  in  preparedness  which  lead 
these  men  not  only  to  give  their  time  to  the  Government,  but 
to  incur  the  expense  of  buying  uniforms  and  paying  for  transpor- 
tation to  the  camps,  is  of  great  value  to  the  country  and  should 
be  encouraged  by  the  War  Department.  These  camps  have 
passed  the  experimental  stage;  there  can  hardly  be  any  question 
as  to  the  advisability  of  continuing  them  and  extending  them 
where  the  conditions  of  service  of  regular  troops  are  such  as  to 
permit  the  department  to  send  troops  and  instructors  to  the 
camps.  Men  with  means,  probably,  do  not  object  to  paying 
the  necessary  funds  to  get  the  military  training  which  the  Gov- 
ernment expects  to  use  in  case  of  need.  Men  who  are  not  so 
fortunately  fixed  financially  should  be  permitted  to  show  their 
patriotism  and  interest  in  preparing  the  country  for  war.  If 
these  camps  are  of  value,  which  undoubtedly  they  are,  and  are 
to  be  continued,  certain  necessary  expenses  of  the  men  willing 
to  give  their  time  should  be  met  by  the  Government. 


Norman  Angell,  internationalist,  urging  the  formation  and  statement  of  a 
definite  foreign  policy,  at  the  Washington's  Birthday  convocation  in  the  Audit- 
orium of  the  University  of  Illinois,  said,  in  part : "  Most  wars  are  not  fought  for  ac- 
tual defense  against  invasion;  they  are  fought  to  defend  some  policy.  None  of  the 
seven  wars  in  which  the  United  States  has  been  engaged  has  been  precipitated 
by  actual  invasion  of  territory;  all  have  been  in  defense  of  policy.  .  .  . 
War  itself  has  become  international.  France  and  England  could  not  have  re- 
sisted Germany  without  each  other,  and  without  both  Belgium  cannot  hope  to 
defend  her  nationality  without  her  treaties  with  both.  .  .  .  Force  is,  or 
should  be,  the  servant  of  man,  and  an  instrument  of  the  human  intelligence; 
and  whether  it  is  well  or  ill  used  depends  absolutely  upon  that  intelligence. 
The  same  instrument  can  be  used  either  for  defense  or  suicide.  Force  is  not  a 
thing  that  operates  of  itself  apart  from  the  human  will,  and  wisdom  will  not 
come  of  itself.  It  demands  a  definite  moral  effort  to  the  end  that  we  may  use 
our  instrument  well  instead  of  ill." 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT 

THE  Adjutant  General's  Department 
consists  of  the  Adjutant  General,  7  Adjutant 
Generals  with  the  rank  of  Colonel,  13  with 
the  rank  of  Lieutenant  Colonel,  30  with 
the  rank  of  Major. 

Brigadier  General  Henry  P.  McCain  has 
been  the  Adjutant  General  since  August 
27, 1914. 

The  Adjutant  General's  Department  is  the  department  of 
records,  orders,  and  correspondence  of  the  Army  and  the  Militia. 
All  orders  and  instructions  emanating  from  the  War  Depart- 
ment, and  all  regulations  affecting  the  Army  or  the  status  of 
officers  and  enlisted  men,  are  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War 
through  the  Chief  of  Staff,  and  are  communicated  to  troops  and 
individuals  in  the  military  service,  through  the  Adjutant  General 
of  the  Army. 

The  Adjutant  General  is  charged  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of 
Staff  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  command,  discipline,  or 
administration  of  the  existing  military  establishment,  with  the 
duty  of  recording,  authenticating,  and  communicating  to  troops 
and  individuals  in  the  military  service  all  orders,  instructions, 
and  regulations  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War  through  the 
Chief  of  Staff;  of  preparing  and  distributing  commissions;  of 
compiling  and  issuing  the  annual  Army  Register,  and  the 
monthly  Army  List  and  Directory;  of  consolidating  the  general 
returns  of  the  Army;  of  arranging  and  preserving  reports  of 

48 


THE  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT    49 

officers  detailed  to  visit  encampments  of  militia;  of  preparing 
the  annual  returns  of  the  militia  required  by  law  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  Congress;  of  managing  the  recruiting  service. 

The  Adjutant  General  has  charge  of  the  military  and  hospital 
records  and  pensions  of  the  volunteer  armies,  and  of  the  publica- 
tion and  distribution  of  the  Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion.  He  has  charge  of  the  historical  records  and  business 
of  the  permanent  military  establishments  including  pay,  bounty, 
pensions,  and  other  business  pertaining  to  or  based  upon  the 
military  or  medical  histories  of  former  officers  or  enlisted  men. 

The  archives  of  the  Adjutant  General's  office  include:  all 
military  records  of  the  Revolutionary  War;  the  records  of  all 
organizations,  officers,  and  enlisted  men  that  have  been  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States  since  the  Revolutionary  War;  the 
records  of  the  movements  and  operations  of  troops;  the  medical 
and  hospital  records  of  the  army;  all  reports  of  physical  exam- 
ination of  recruits  and  all  identification  cards;  the  records  of  the 
Provost  Marshal  General's  bureau;  the  records  of  the  Bureau 
of  Refugees,  Freedmen  and  Abandoned  Lands;  the  Confederate 
records,  including  those  pertaining  to  the  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  branches  of  the  Confederate  government. 

The  Adjutant  General  takes  such  steps  as  are  necessary  to 
complete  or  correct  the  records  in  his  custody,  and  answers 
all  calls  and  inquiries  from  these  records  that  do  not  require  the 
administrative  action  by  other  bureaus  of  the  War  Department. 
This  office  labors  continually  to  simplify  military  correspondence 
records  and  returns.  An  average  of  1,100  communications, 
inquiries,  etc.,  are  received  daily,  about  90  per  cent,  of  which 
are  answered  within  twenty-four  hours.  Including  returns  of 
troops,  muster  rolls,  enlistment  papers,  identification  records, 
and  periodical  reports  the  daily  average  of  papers  handled  is 
about  1,800. 

Much  statistical  data  and  many  items  of  general  interest  rela- 
tive to  the  Army  are  treated  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Ad- 
jutant General.  The  last  officer  of  the  Regular  Army  who  saw 


50  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

service  in  the  Civil  War,  Col.  John  Clem,  Q.M.C.,  was  retired 
for  age  in  1915,  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General. 

Certificates  of  eligibility  have  been  issued  to  184  persons  who 
were  reported,  after  examination,  to  be  especially  qualified  to 
hold  commissions  in  any  volunteer  force  which  may  be  called 
forth,  other  than  a  force  composed  of  organized  militia.  In 
addition  658  applicants  have  qualified  subject  to  future  physical 
examination. 

From  1911—1915, 1,935  students  in  civil  institutions  of  learn- 
ing were  recommended  as  qualified  for  appointment  as  volunteer 
officers.  These  are  graduates  of  colleges  at  which  officers  of  the 
Regular  Army  are  detailed  as  professors  of  military  science  and 
tactics,  and  who  hare  been  recommended  by  those  professors 
as  especially  qualified  for  the  military  service,  and  students  who 
have  attended  two  summer  camps  of  instruction  recommended 
by  the  camp  commanders.  Approximately  32,300  students  were 
enrolled  during  1916  in  civil  institutions  at  which  ninety-eight 
army  officers  were  detailed  as  military  instructors. 

Army  service  is  voluntary,  and  after  November  1, 1916,  is  for  a 
period  of  three  years  with  the  colors,  and  four  years  in  the  Army 
Reserve,  unless  sooner  discharged.  After  the  expiration  of  one 
year's  honorable  service  any  enlisted  man  serving  loithin  the 
continental  limits  of  the  United  States,  whose  company,  troop, 
battery,  or  detachment  commander  shall  report  him  as  proficient 
and  sufficiently  trained  may,  in  the  discretion  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  be  furloughed  to  the  Army  Reserve,  but  no  man  fur- 
loughed  to  the  reserve  shall  be  eligible  to  re'enlist  in  the  service 
until  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  seven  years.  Vacancies  are 
continually  occurring  due  to  expiration  of  enlistment  period, 
death,  discharge  by  purchase,  disability,  desertion,  and  by  order 
of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Filling  these  vacancies  now  aggre- 
gating about  65,000  per  year,  devolves  primarily  upon  the  Ad- 
jutant General  of  the  Army.  This  is  accomplished  through  the 
General  Recruiting  Service,  maintained  in  cities  throughout  the 
country  and  by  local  recruiting  service  at  each  Army  post  or 


THE  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT     51 

station.  During  the  fiscal  year  1916  general  recruiting  sta- 
tions were  maintained  for  varying  periods,  in  352  cities  by  59 
officers  and  1,030  enlisted  men.  Applicants  reporting  at  any 
recruiting  station  receive  information  concerning  all  phases  of 
Army  life.  Extreme  care  is  exercised  in  order  to  accept  only 
those  who  evidence  aptitude  for  military  service  and  are  other- 
wise eligible  and  suitable.  Consent  of  parents  or  guardian  is 
required  for  enlistment  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  Post- 
masters of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  class  may  receive  five 
dollars  for  each  recruit  accepted  for  enlistment  in  the  Army  pro- 
cured by  them.  Applicants  for  enlistment  are  sent  at  Govern- 
ment expense  to  the  nearest  recruit  depot  for  final  examination; 
if  accepted  they  are  given  preliminary  drill  and  training  before 
being  sent  to  their  permanent  organization,  which  as  far  as 
practicable  is  of  their  own  choice.  If  reiected  they  are  returned 
to  the  place  of  acceptance. 

When  the  punitive  expedition  was  organized  for  service  in 
Mexico  in  March,  1916,  the  Army  was  practically  recruited  to 
its  authorized  minimum  strength  and  Congress  by  resolution, 
authorized  it  to  be  increased  to  111,305  enlisted  men  not  includ- 
ing 6,000  in  the  Quartermaster  Corps  and  5,388  in  the  Hospital 
Corps. 

The  actual  strength  of  the  Army,  May  25,  1916,  was:  Reg- 
ular Army,  83,940;  Hospital  Corps,  3,912;  Quartermaster  Corps, 
4,559;  Philippine  Scouts,  5,604. 

The  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army  is  charged  with  the  gov- 
ernment and  control  of  the  United  States  Disciplinary  Bar- 
racks, Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  and  its  branches  at  Fort 
Jay,  Governors  Island,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Alcatraz  Island,  San 
Francisco,  Calif.  This  includes  all  offenders  sent  thereto  for 
confinement  and  detention  and  the  remission  or  mitigation  of 
sentences  of  general  prisoners  who  have  been  dishonorably  dis- 
charged from  the  military  service. 

At  the  Fort  Leavenworth  Military  Prison  the  old  stone  build- 
ings had  become  so  dangerous  and  unsanitary  that  Congress 


52  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

in  1908  responded  to  the  appeal  of  Adjutant  General  Ainsworth, 
by  appropriating  $583,000  for  a  new  military  prison  and  $60,000 
additional  for  a  new  power,  light,  and  heating  plant,  with  the 
proviso  that  these  appropriations  should  be  so  expended  as  to 
give  the  maximum  amount  of  employment  to  the  inmates. 

The  new  prison,  built  on  the  astral  plan  (eight  wings  radiating 
from  a  rotunda)  to  accommodate  about  1,800  prisoners  and 
requiring  about  90,000  cubic  yards  of  masonry,  is  about  90 
per  cent,  complete.  All  brick  and  cement  blocks  are  made  and 
laid  by  prisoners  and  all  other  skilled  labor  in  connection  there- 
with is  prison  labor  under  the  direction  of  civilian  superintend- 
ents and  foremen. 

A  new  disciplinary  system  was  inaugurated  September  13, 
1913,  by  Secretary  of  War  Garrison,  based  upon  the  provisions 
of  the  Act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1873,  authorizing  and  directing 
the  Secretary  of  War  to  remit  in  part  the  sentences  of  such  con- 
victs and  to  give  them  an  honorable  restoration  to  duty  in  case 
the  same  is  merited.  To  revive  this  Act  certain  amendments 
necessary  to  subsequent  laws  were  enacted  in  1912,  1914,  and 
1915.  The  new  system  has  reached  a  commendable  state  of 
development,  although  it  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  One 
by  one  the  objectionable  features  of  the  old  system  are  being 
replaced  by  modern  penal  practice.  Unlimited  letter  writing  is 
permitted;  striped  clothing  has  been  discarded;  the  rule  of  silence 
in  the  mess  hall,  the  shaving  of  heads  and  cropping  of  hah*  no 
longer  prevails.  Vocational  and  industrial  training  are  practised. 

Seven  disciplinary  companies  equipped  as  infantry  are  main- 
tained for  purely  military  offenders  for  military  drill  and  train- 
ing one-half  of  each  day.  Olive  drab  clothing,  without  numbers, 
the  privilege  of  saluting  officers,  open  cells,  honor  committees 
without  guard,  and  other  privileges  are  allowed  this  class.  As- 
signment to  disciplinary  companies  is  made  at  the  end  of  a 
thirty-day  calisthenic  period,  following  admission.  Later,  if 
they  desire  restoration  to  the  Army,  a  searching  character  study 
and  examination  is  made  to  determine  their  aptitude  and 


THE  ADJUTANT  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT     53 


eligibility  for  military  service.  The  military  training  received 
includes  calisthenics;  recruit  drill;  training  in  the  school  of  the 
soldier,  squad,  company,  and  battalion;  pitching  and  striking 
tents;  sand  table  instruction  in  entrenching;  actual  construction 
of  revetting  material  and  of  frame 
and  spar  bridges;  musketry  course 
and  target  practice;  signaling  and 
guard  duty.  Assignment  to  hard 
labor  includes  vocational  training 
calculated  to  insure  success  in  civil 
life.  At  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan., 
a  Disciplinary  Battalion  of  four 


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companies  is  maintained  and  one,  of 
two  companies,  at  Alcatraz  Island. 

The  War  Department  is  thus 
reaching  down  and  lifting  up  a  por- 
tion of  its  military  delinquents,  re- 
moving the  stigma  of  dishonorable 
discharge,  restoring  military  status 
and  self  respect,  placing  their  rifles 
back  upon  their  shoulders  and  teach- 
ing them  the  refinements  of  soldiering 
under  a  restraint  that  augurs  well 
for  their  rehabilitation. 

At  the  Disciplinary  Barracks  and  at  posts  (May  1,  1916) 
371  men  had  been  restored  of  whom  seventy-three  have  proven 
to  be  failures,  while  several  have  been  advanced  to  the  grade  of 
sergeant.  Several  hundred  have  been  granted  permission  to 
reenlist  and  244  had  taken  advantage  of  this  privilege. 

There  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  discipline  as  indicated 
by  the  diagram  of  punishments  awarded  for  violation  of  prison 
regulations  during  the  past  six  years  at  Fort  Leavenworth, 
Kansas. 

The  United  States  Disciplinary  Barracks  is  contributing 
materially  to  the  development  of  intensive  military  training 


54  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

throughout  the  Army  by  means  of  sand  table  and  terrain  sets  of 
miniature  models  of  trenches,  revetments  and  various  phases 
of  military  field  engineering  and  musketry. 

These  sets  are  being  manufactured  there  for  distribution  to 
military  organizations  of  the  Regular  Army,  National  Guard, 
and  Military  Colleges. 

The  Military  penal  institutions  and  system  of  discipline, 
punishment,  and  correction  no  longer  suffer  by  comparison  with 
other  penal  institutions. 


"The  present  European  war  ought  to  prove  a  lesson  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  an  apt  illustration  of  the  suddenness  with  which  war  comes. 
It  should  teach  us  that  we  must  be  prepared  for  any  and  every  possible  emerg- 
ency. 

"  It  proves  the  wisdom  of  those  who  favored  and  insisted  on  the  fortification 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  despite  protests  of  peace  propagandists.  The  recol- 
lection that  England  seized  the  Suez  Canal  in  1882,  and  closed  it  for  three  days 
to  the  vessels  of  all  nations  and  even  those  of  the  Suez  Canal  Company  itself, 
ought  to  have  been  a  sufficient  argument  in  favor  of  fortification.  But  we  were 
told  that  the  world  has  advanced.  That  our  treaties  would  protect  our  water- 
way. Treaties  indeed!  What  has  become  of  the  neutrality  treaties  concerning 
Luxemburg  and  Belgium?  They  have  been  broken  as  though  they  had  been 
ropes  of  sand. 

'  'To-day  we  stand  isolated  and  alone  in  world  politics.  We  cannot  count  upon 
the  friendship  of  a  single  nation.  We  must  be  ready  to  stand  alone  and  by 
ourselves  in  every  international  emergency.  Therefore,  it  is  essential,  nay, 
more,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  we  maintain  our  Army  and  Navy  in  such  a 
state  of  preparedness  that  our  National  honor  will  be  protected,  and  upheld, 
come  what  may." — REPRESENTATIVE  JULIUS  KAIIN,  ranking  minority  mem- 
ber of  the  House  Military  Affairs  Committee. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  INSPECTOR  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT 

THE  Inspector  General's  Department  has 
been  presided  over  by  Brigadier  General 
Ernest  A.  Garlington,  I.G.D.,  since  October 
1,  1906.  The  Inspector  General  is  assisted 
by  four  Inspector  Generals  with  the  rank  of 
Colonel,  eight  with  rank  of  Lieutenant  Colonel,  sixteen  with 
rank  of  Major.  There  are,  in  addition  to  these,  four  Acting  In- 
spector Generals  detailed  from  field  officers  of  the  line  as  as- 
sistants, under  the  Act  of  June  23, 1874.  The  Inspector  General 
or  an  assistant  inspects  the  United  States  Military  Academy; 
the  service  schools;  garrisoned  posts  and  commands;  camps 
of  maneuver  and  instruction;  staff  offices  at  department 
headquarters;  general  hospitals;  armories  and  arsenals; 
quartermaster,  ordnance,  medical,  signal,  and  engineer  depots; 
recruit  depots  and  recruiting  stations;  the  disciplinary  bar- 
racks and  its  branches,  and  military  prisoners  hi  United 
States  penitentiary,  Leaven  worth,  Kansas;  ungarrisoned  posts; 
national  cemeteries;  United  States  Army  transports,  cable 
boats,  mine  planters,  harbor  boats,  and  chartered  transports 
upon  arrival  at  or  departure  from  ports;  unserviceable  property; 
money  accounts  of  all  disbursing  officers  of  the  Army;  Soldiers' 
Home,  District  of  Columbia,  and  the  headquarters  and  ten 
branches  of  the  National  Home  for  Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers. 
Department  and  brigade  commanders  have  on  their  staff  an 
Inspector  General  who  assists  in  the  annual  tactical  inspection 
of  troops. 

The  sphere  of  inquiry  of  the  Inspector  General's  Department 

55 


56  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

includes  every  branch  of  military  affairs.  Inspector  Generals 
exercise  a  comprehensive  and  general  observation  within  the 
command  to  which  they  may  be  assigned  over  all  that  pertains 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  Army,  the  condition  and  state  of  supplies 
of  all  kinds,  of  arms  and  equipment,  of  the  expenditure  of  public 
property  and  moneys,  and  the  condition  of  accounts  of  all  dis- 
bursing officers  of  every  branch  of  the  service,  of  the  conduct, 
discipline,  and  efficiency  of  officers  and  troops.  They  report 
with  strict  impartiality  in  regard  to  all  irregularities  that  may 
be  discovered  and  make  suggestions  for  the  correction  of  defects 
coming  under  their  observation. 

They  feel  the  pulse  of  the  Army,  so  to  speak,  and  recommend 
modification  or  amendment  of  existing  orders  to  meet  new  condi- 
tions, thus  exerting  a  timely  and  potent  influence  over  the  up- 
keep and  welfare  of  the  Army. 

General  Sherman  commenting  of  the  functions  of  this  de- 
partment stated:  "On  the  Inspector-General  of  the  Army 
devolves,  as  a  matter  of  course,  duties  of  the  most  delicate  and 
responsible  nature.  He  is,  or  should  be,  in  fact  the  alter  ego 
of  the  Commander  in  Chief.  In  technical  language  he  is  his 
'other  eye.'  He  inspects  troops,  examines  money  and  prop- 
erty accounts,  detects  errors  of  administration  and  discipline, 
prevents  irregularities  of  all  kinds,  and  is  habitually  authorized 
to  give  orders  on  the  spot  in  the  name  of  his  principal.  The 
heads  of  bureaus  are,  in  our  service,  construed  as  branches  of  the 
War  Department,  so  that  the  Inspector-General  has  frequently 
been  intrusted  with  most  confidential  inspections  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  in  addition  to  his  purely  military  functions." 

The  annual  report  of  General  Garlington,  for  1915,  contains 
the  following  items  of  general  interest  which  illustrate  how  this 
Department  keeps  the  Secretary  of  War  informed  of  conditions 
existing  in  the  Army : 

"The  drill  and  instruction  of  troops  is  very  satisfactory  with 
few  exceptions. 

"  The  new  infantry  equipment  is  excellent. 


THE  INSPECTOR  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT     57 

"The  Army  as  a  whole  is  as  fully  equipped  as  could  be 
expected.  Discipline  is  satisfactory. 

"  The  length  of  the  enlistment  period,  seven  years,  is  given  as 
a  reason  why  many  do  not  enlist  or  reenlist. 

"There  is  a  serious  shortage  in  public  animals  and  means 
of  transportation  at  some  Coast  Artillery  posts. 

"There  has  been  progress  and  improvement  in  signaling  by 
means  of  the  flag. 

"  The  transport  service  is  impaired  due  to  the  slow  speed  of 
transports.  Several  chartered  vessels  are  in  use  as  transports. 

"It  is  believed  that  several  years'  trial  has  shown  that  the 
annual  test  ride  for  field  officers  (a  ride  of  90  miles  in  three  con- 
secutive days  or  a  walk  of  50  miles  in  two  days)  has  failed  to 
accomplish  any  good  purpose  and  should  be  abandoned.  The 
daily  exercise  now  required  under  the  direction  of  the  post  com- 
mander, where  daily  drills  and  routine  work  are  not  sufficient, 
will,  without  additional  cost  and  waste  of  time,  accomplish  the 
purpose  for  officers  serving  at  posts.  For  other  officers  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  exercise  each  month  would  be  more  beneficial. 

"The  food  furnished  the  enlisted  men  is  said  to  be  excellent 
especially  as  compared  with  conditions  that  prevailed  some 
years  ago.  This  is  due  to  some  extent  to  improvements  in  the 
ration,  but  is  said  to  be  more  especially  due  to  better  cooks, 
many  of  whom  are  graduates  of  Army  cooking  schools." 


When  Patrick  Henry  uttered  his  impassioned  appeal  to  the  Virginia  Con- 
vention in  1775,  he  said: 

"It  is  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter.  Gentlemen  may  cry  peace,  peace, 
but  there  is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun.  The  next  gale  that  sweeps 
from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding  arms.  Our  brethren 
are  already  in  the  field. 

"Why  stand  we  here  idle?  What  is  it  that  gentlemen  wish?  What  would 
they  have?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price 
of  chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what  course 
others  may  take,  but,  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death!" 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT 

THE  Judge  Advocate  General's  Depart- 
ment is  the  legal  Bureau  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment. It  consists  of  the  Judge  Advocate 
General,  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  General, 
4  Judge  Advocates  with  the  rank  of  Colonel, 
7  with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant  Colonel,  20  with  the  rank  of 
Major,  and  such  officers  detailed  as  Acting  Judge  Advocates 
of  departments  or  tactical  divisions,  or  for  other  duties  as  may 
be  necessary. 

Brigadier  General  Enoch  H.  Crowder  has  been  the  Judge 
Advocate  General  and  Chief  of  this  Department  since  Feb- 
ruary 15, 1911. 

The  Judge  Advocate  General  is  the  custodian  of  the  records 
of  all  general  courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and  military 
commissions,  and  of  all  papers  relating  to  title  of  land  under  the 
control  of  the  War  Department,  except  the  Washington  Aque- 
duct and  the  public  buildings  and  grounds  of  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

A  Judge  Advocate  is  detailed  upon  the  staff  of  every  com- 
mander exercising  general  court-martial  jurisdiction.  These 
officers  supervise  the  preparation  of  charges  which  are  to  be 
referred  to  general  court-martial  for  trial,  review  the  proceed- 
ings of  courts-martial,  making  recommendations  to  the  com- 
manding general  as  to  the  correctness  of  procedure  and  validity 
of  the  action  of  the  courts. 

The  Judge  Advocate  furnishes  the  Secretary  of  War  with  in- 
formation and  legal  advice  relating  to  lands  and  waters  under 

58 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT  59 

the  control  of  the  War  Department.  He  renders  legal  opinions 
upon  questions  arising  under  the  laws,  regulations,  and  customs 
pertaining  to  the  Army,  and  upon  miscellaneous  questions 
arising  under  civil  law.  He  examines  and  prepares  legal  papers 
relative  to  the  construction  of  bridges,  seawalls,  dams,  bulk- 
heads, jetties,  levees,  dikes,  wharves,  piers,  breakwaters,  cause- 
ways, obstructions,  dredging  and  filling,  and  other  work  over  or 
in  navigable  waters.  He  drafts  bonds  and  examines  those  given 
to  the  United  States  by  disbursing  officers,  colleges,  rifle  clubs, 
and  others;  he  drafts  and  executes  deeds,  contracts,  licenses, 
leases,  and  other  legal  papers  relating  to  matters  under  the  War 
Department. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  there  were  considered 
by  the  Judge  Advocate  General's  office,  1,253  miscellaneous 
cases  upon  various  legal  questions,  and  5,339  court-martial 
proceedings.  The  record  of  each  trial  by  general  court-martial 
is  carefully  examined  in  this  office  even  though  the  sentence  of 
the  court  has  been  carried  into  execution  by  the  department  com- 
mander. The  concern  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General  for  those 
men  who  have  come  under  the  punishment  of  military  courts 
has  not  ended  with  examinations  as  to  the  legality  of  their 
convictions,  but  has  extended  to  a  study  of  modern  penology  in 
connection  with  the  handling  of  military  prisoners. 

Secretary  of  War  Stimson  visited  the  military  prisons  in 
1911  and  reported  that,  "The  conditions  existing  and  of  long 
standing  are  contrary  to  the  modern  trend  of  correctional  insti- 
tutions; that  desperation  and  despair  prevailed."  He  directed 
Judge  Advocate  General  Crowder  to  make  a  personal  inspection 
of  military  prisons  and  a  careful  investigation  of  existing  condi- 
tions. His  report  thereon,  submitted  November  20,  1911,  is  a 
most  comprehensive  analysis  of  all  phases  of  military  discipline 
and  punishment.  It  was  pointed  out  that  there  was  perhaps 
no  other  subject  connected  with  the  administration  of  the  mili- 
tary establishment  which  had  received  more  earnest  attention 
by  the  military  authorities  than  the  subject  of  desertion,  its 


60  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

causes  and  proper  punishment;  that  annual  reports,  service 
journals,  and  the  public  press  teem  with  its  discussion.  He 
quoted  at  length  from  the  report  of  the  Inspector  General,  1905, 
summarizing  systematic  efforts  made  to  ameliorate  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soldier  in  respect  to  his  living,  dress,  enjoyments, 
comfort,  and  contentment,  as  a  means  of  reducing  desertion  rates. 
He  quoted  from  the  report  of  the  Adjutant  General,  1908,  setting 
forth  that  desertion  is  due  hi  a  great  measure  to  underlying 
causes  inherent  in  our  national  life.  He  also  pointed  out  that 
the  organic  Act  of  March  3, 1873,  establishing  the  Military  Prison 
contemplated  that  prisoners  should  to  some  extent  be  reclaimed 
and  saved  to  the  Army.  It  could  not  be  ascertained  that  the 
Secretary  of  War  had  made  use  of  this  authority  to  restore 
prisoners  to  duty.  This  had  not  been  possible  since  the  enact- 
ment of  August  1,  1894,  prohibiting  the  reenlistment  of  those 
whose  last  preceding  term  of  enlistment  had  not  been  honest 
and  faithful. 

He  suggested  amendments  necessary  to  existing  laws  restrict- 
ing reenlistment  and  affecting  rights  of  citizenship  in  the  case  of 
deserters,  and  which  have  been  corrected  by  Acts  of  August 
22,  1912  and  April  27,  1914. 

Secretary  of  War  Garrison  at  once  became  deeply  interested 
in  the  necessity  and  propriety  of  military  prison  reform.  He 
personally  inspected  the  military  prisons  in  1913  and  directed 
inauguration  of  a  new  system  recommended  by  General  Crowder 
and  to  be  developed  under  his  guidance  and  supervision.  This 
was  undertaken  by  the  issuance  of  G.  O.  56  W.  D.  1913  and  has 
been  highly  successful. 

Congress  further  contributed  to  the  successful  issue  of  the 
new  system  by  act  of  March  4,  1915,  which  changed  the  name 
of  the  Military  Prison  to  the  United  States  Disciplinary  Bar- 
racks; authorized  parole  of  general  prisoners;  extended  author- 
ity to  restore  to  an  honorable  status  to  include  those  prisoners 
confined  elsewhere  than  at  the  United  States  Disciplinary 
Barracks,  and  to  vest  in  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Army  the 


JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT  61 

government  and  control  of  the  Disciplinary  Barracks  and  its 
branches. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  question  of  desertion  a 
graphic  chart  was  prepared  depicting  the  annual  rise  and  fall  in 
the  desertion  rates  since  1830  and  including  the  rate  of  pay  of 
privates,  length  of  enlistment,  rewards  for  apprehending  de- 
serters, and  other  congressional  and  War  Department  action 
to  limit  and  control  desertion.  This  table  is  especially  interest- 
ing at  this  time  as  teaching  the  fallacy  and  danger  of  depending 
upon  hastily  raised  and  untrained  troops  in  national  emergency. 
The  desertion  rate  of  raw  troops  in  the  Civil  War  rose  to  45  per 
cent,  of  the  enlisted  strength.  The  desertion  rate  in  the  regu- 
lar army  was  highest  when  the  enlistment  period  was  longest. 
Curiously  enough  in  1898  when  the  Spanish- American  war  was 
being  waged  the  percentage  of  desertions  was  the  lowest  in  68 
years,  being  but  1.6  per  cent.  The  number  of  desertions  fluc- 
tuate greatly.  In  1873  18.8  per  cent,  deserted,  in  1874  12  per 
cent.,  in  1875  7.2  per  cent.  During  the  last  twenty-five  years 
the  percentages  have  not  differed  so  greatly  nor  has  the  total 
been  so  large. 

The  Judge  Advocate  General's  Department  has  submitted 
to  Congress  for  approval  a  revision  of  the  Articles  of  War  for 
the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Army,  many  Articles 
being  entirely  obsolete  and  others  deficient  by  reason  of  changes 
which  have  been  imposed  by  Congressional  enactments  and 
modern  efficiency. 

An  important  undertaking  devolved  upon  the  Judge  Advocate 
General's  Department  during  the  temporary  control  exercised 
over  Cuban  affairs  in  1907-09,  by  the  United  States  Army  of 
Occupation,  through  the  compilation  of  new  laws  and  a  penal 
code  for  Cuba,  the  insurrection  there  having  arisen  principally 
through  the  lack  of  suitable  laws. 


CHAPTER  VIH 
THE  QUARTERMASTER  CORPS 

THE  Quartermaster  Corps  is  administered 
by  the  Quartermaster  General.  The  author- 
ized number  of  officers  of  the  Quartermaster 
Corps  is  1  Major  General,  2  Brigadier  Gen- 
erals, 21  Colonels,  24  Lieutenant  Colonels,  68 
Majors,  180  Captains,  and  72  Pay  Clerks 
with  the  rank,  pay,  and  allowances  of  second 
lieutenants,  and  one  as  First  Lieutenant. 

The  total  enlisted  strength  of  the  Quartermaster  Corps  and 
the  number  in  each  grade  is  fixed  from  time  to  time  by  the 
President  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  Army,  the  number 
in  the  various  grades  not  to  exceed  the  following  percentages 
of  the  total  authorized  enlisted  strength  of  the  Quartermaster 
Corps:  Quartermaster  Sergeants,  senior  grade,  five-tenths  of 
one  per  cent.;  Quartermaster  Sergeants,  six  per  cent;  Sergeants, 
first-class,  two  and  five-tenths  per  cent. ;  Sergeants,  twenty-five 
per  cent.;  Corporals,  ten  per  cent.;  Privates,  first-class,  forty- 
five  per  cent. ;  Privates,  nine  per  cent. ;  Cooks,  two  per  cent. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps  provides  means  of  transportation 
of  every  character  needed  for  the  movement  of  troops  and 
material  of  war.  It  furnishes  all  public  animals  in  the  service 
of  the  Army,  forage  for  same,  horse  equipments,  wagons,  and  all 
articles  necessary  for  their  use. 

It  furnishes  clothing,  camp,  and  garrison  equipage  for  the 
Regular  Army  and  National  Guard.  It  erects  barracks, 
storehouses,  and  other  buildings.  It  constructs  and  repairs 
roads,  railways,  and  bridges;  builds  and  charters  ships,  boats, 

62 


THE  QUARTERMASTER  CORPS  63 

docks,  and  wharves  needed  for  military  purposes;  erects  pump- 
ing, heating,  power,  and  light  plants  and  sewage  systems;  sup- 
plies subsistence  for  enlisted  men  and  others  enlisted  therein; 
supplies  articles  for  authorized  sales  and  issues;  furnishes  lists 
of  articles  kept  on  sale;  gives  instructions  for  procuring,  dis- 
tributing, issuing,  selling,  and  accounting  for  all  quartermaster 
and  subsistence  supplies.  It  has  charge  of  the  distribution 
of  and  accounting  for  funds  for  the  payment  of  the  Army,  the 
Porto  Rican  regiment  of  infantry,  and  the  Philippine  Scouts, 
and  such  other  financial  duties  as  are  especially  assigned  to  it; 
and  attends  to  all  matters  connected  with  the  military  service 
which  are  not  expressly  assigned  to  some  other  bureau  of  the 
War  Department.  The  expenditures  of  the  Quartermaster 
Corps  aggregate  about  $90,000,000  annually. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps  transports  to  the  place  of  issue  and 
provides  storehouses  and  other  means  of  protection  for  the  pre- 
servation of  stores  supplied  for  the  Army  by  other  departments. 

General  depots  for  the  collection,  manufacture,  and  preserva- 
tion of  quartermaster  stores,  until  required  for  distribution,  are 
under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Quartermaster  General. 
An  officer  of  the  Quartermaster  Corps  is  assigned  as  Chief 
Quartermaster  of  each  geographical  department  or  brigade  or 
division  of  troops  and  as  commanding  officers  of  supply  depots 
maintained  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps  provides  cooking  and  quarters  for 
the  entire  enlisted  strength  of  the  Army.  Our  Army  is  said  to 
be  better  fed,  clothed,  and  quartered  than  any  other  army.  The 
ration  for  garrison  duty  for  one  man  for  one  day  now  costs 
about  thirty  cents  and  is  as  follows :  fresh  beef,  20  oz. ;  flour,  18  oz. ; 
baking  powder,  .08  oz.;  beans,  2.4  oz.;  potatoes  or  onions,  20  oz.; 
evaporated  prunes,  apples,  or  peaches,  1.28  oz.;  sugar,  3.2  oz.; 
coffee,  roasted  and  ground,  1.12  oz.;  milk,  evaporated,  .5  oz.; 
vinegar,  .16  gill;  salt,  .64  oz.;  pepper,  black,  .04  oz.;  cinnamon, 
cloves,  ginger,  or  nutmeg,  .014  oz.;  lard,  .64  oz.;  butter,  .5  oz.; 
syrup,  .32  gill;  flavoring  extract,  .014  oz. 


64  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

A  long  list  of  articles  may  be  substituted  for  the  above  on  the 
basis  of  cost.  The  money  value  of  the  ration  may  be  received 
by  the  organization  commander  in  lieu  of  certain  of  the  articles 
and  then  be  expended  by  him  for  other  food  articles  thus  per- 
mitting a  more  diversified  bill  of  fare.  This  fund  is  called  the 
"mess  fund."  Troops  are  messed  by  company  organizations. 
Company  gardens  furnish  fresh  vegetables  in  season. 

The  Quartermaster  General,  Major  General  James  B.  Aleshire, 
incident  to  his  appearance  before  the  Military  Committee  of  the 
House  in  January,  1916,  mentioned  the  following  interesting 
items  pertaining  to  his  corps : 

"The  expense  of  maintaining  troops  on  the  border  as  com- 
pared with  that  at  regular  garrisons  is  estimated  to  be  $331,000 
per  year  above  the  ordinary  expenses.  It  requires  a  little  over 
$200,000  per  year  to  replace  worn  out  tentage. 

"The  equipment  on  hand  is  reported  as  sufficient  to  provide 
for  the  Army,  the  National  Guard,  and  an  additional  250,000 
troops.  It  is  considered  possible  to  equip  300,000  additional 
men  within  seventy-five  days.  This  would  probably  provide 
equipment  as  fast  as  men  could  be  recruited. 

"  It  was  recommended  that  there  be  a  quartermaster  reserve 
corps,  similar  to  the  German  plan,  to  include  specialists  from 
civil  life,  who  would  handle  supplies  and  be  commissioned  under 
certain  conditions.  As  an  example  of  the  technical  knowledge 
necessary  it  was  stated  that  about  3,000  different  kinds  of 
articles  are  purchased  for  the  Army,  and  counting  the  different 
sizes,  etc.,  would  bring  the  total  to  10,000. 

"The  Army  transport  service  consists  of  sixteen  transports, 
several  of  which  are  of  little  use.  It  would  be  possible  to  obtain 
by  charter  366  vessels  which  could  be  used  for  transport  purposes 
in  time  of  war.  Forty  per  cent,  of  these  vessels  have  been  sur- 
veyed by  a  marine  engineer  and  estimates  prepared  to  equip 
them  to  the  best  advantage.  It  is  estimated  that  if  one-third 
of  the  tonnage  were  used,  approximately  60,000  men  and  40,000 
animals  could  be  transported,  but  the  speed  with  which  such 


Buzzacott  Army  rolling  kitchen  which  Generals  Funston  and 
Pershing  have  endorsed  and  strongly  urged  to  be  adopted  for 
immediate  use  by  the  Army,  along  the  Mexican  border.  It  cooks 
as  it  travels  along,  thus  minimizing  the  cooking  bugbear  of  Army 
field  service 


The  United  States  Army's  present  system  of  camp  cooking 


Enlisted  man,  Medical  Corps,  in  heavy  marching  order.     The 
pouches  of  belt  contain  medicine. 


THE  QUARTERMASTER  CORPS  65 

an  operation  could  be  completed  would  depend  upon  the  length 
of  time  it  would  take  to  get  the  ships.  The  vessels  could  be 
equipped  after  being  received  by  the  Government  in  four  or 
five  days. 

"  Manufacturers  are  able  to  deliver  6,200  trucks  within  thirty 
days.  Of  that  number  about  fifty  per  cent,  would  represent 
trucks  with  which  the  department  is  familiar  as  a  result  of  ex- 
haustive tests.  The  Government  by  law  has  preference  and 
precedence  over  all  other  traffic  in  the  movement  of  the  Army 
and  its  supplies,  and  the  officers  of  the  transportation  companies 
are  compelled  to  see  that  the  Government  work  is  expedited. 

"  The  question  of  railroad  transportation  has  been  thoroughly 
investigated  by  the  Quartermaster  Corps.  The  American 
Railway  Association,  which  is  composed  of  leading  officials  of 
the  various  railroads,  offered  to  establish  an  office  in  the  War 
Department  for  the  benefit  of  the  Government  when  the  Mexi- 
can situation  seemed  particularly  serious.  Among  the  various 
statistics  gathered,  it  was  shown  that  there  are  available  63,000 
locomotives,  59,000  passenger  cars,  and  2,421,000  freight  cars. 

"  Officers  of  the  Quartermaster  Corps  have  made  very  careful 
investigations  in  the  three  remote  districts  and  have  located 
.ibout  225,000  horses  and  120,000  mules  suitable  for  all  Army 
purposes,  which  could  be  purchased  in  an  emergency.  The 
normal  demand  for  horses  for  war  purposes  by  foreign  govern- 
ments has  been  about  30,000  per  year,  but  there  have  been 
shipped  from  this  country  in  a  period  of  eighteen  months  551,000 
animals.  The  horses  exported  are  far  below  the  standard  in  the 
United  States  Army,  as  it  has  been  possible  to  buy  younger 
animals  than  those  desired  for  service  abroad.  One  of  the  inter- 
esting facts  in  connection  with  this  large  shipment  of  horses 
is  that  but  ten  per  cent,  of  brood  mares  have  been  included  in 
that  number.  The  supply  of  horses  suitable  for  the  Army  under 
the  plan  proposed  by  the  War  Department  and  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  which  was  put  into  effect  in  1910,  has  resulted 
in  several  thousand  young  horses  being  recorded.  It  is  reported 


66  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

concerning  an  attempt  to  have  horses  raised  by  the  Indians 
on  various  reservations,  that  it  has  been  found  that  there  was  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  obtain  colts  from  this  source.  How- 
ever, after  the  plan  had  been  inaugurated  the  commissioner  of 
Indian  affairs  decided  that  the  Indians  should  not  raise  horses 
for  war  purposes,  as  he  desired  to  get  the  Indian  mind  as  far 
away  from  war  as  possible." 

In  connection  with  the  alarm  now  seriously  felt  in  America 
over  the  cutting  off  of  the  essential  dye  stuffs  heretofore  supplied 
by  Germany,  it  is  very  interesting  to  note  that  this  same  lesson 
was  taught  America  during  the  War  of  1812-1814.  Up  to  that 
time  the  uniform  of  West  Point  cadets  was  blue  the  same  as  that 
of  commissioned  officers  of  the  Army.  On  account  of  the  block- 
ade during  this  war,  blue  dye  stuffs  could  no  longer  be  obtained. 
In  the  summer  of  1814  General  Winfield  Scott  was  forced  to 
clothe  his  army  in  gray.  The  regulars  wore  gray  when  they  won 
the  battle  of  Chippewa,  July,  1814.  The  authorities  at  West 
Point  in  honor  of  this  victory,  and  in  deference  to  General 
Scott,  changed  the  cadet  uniform  to  the  present  gray  uniform. 

Later  on  the  uniform  for  officers  was  again  changed  to  blue  as 
at  present.  The  Quartermaster  Corps  is  again  confronted  with 
the  probability  of  having  to  abandon  the  blue  uniform  on 
account  of  the  present  interruption  of  export  of  dye  stuffs  from 
Germany.  In  the  development  of  the  dye-stuff  industry  over 
750  by-products  have  arisen  making  this  one  of  the  most  intri- 
cate and  complicated  of  manufacturing  industries. 


"The  fool's  paradise  of  an  unprotected  peace  in  which  the  United  States 
thought  it  could  live  'unarmed  and  unafraid'  has  had  the  flaming  sword  of 
battles  placed  at  its  gate,  and  while  the  American  nation  can,  if  it  cfioose,  con- 
tinue to  live  in  it  unarmed,  it  can  no  longer  live  in  it  unafraid." — TALCOTT 
WILLIAMS,  Dean  of  the  School  of  Journalism,  Columbia  University. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  MEDICAL  CORPS 

THE  Medical  Corps  is  the  non-combatant 
branch  of  service.      Its  personnel  carry  no 
weapons,  being  protected  on  the  field  of  battle 
by  the  red  cross  emblem  of  the  Geneva  con- 
Guidon  of          vention  by  international  agreement. 
Ambulance  Company       Tke  ty[edicai  corps  comprises  the  Medical 

Corps  proper,  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps,  until  June  1,  1917, 
the  Dental  Corps,  a  Veterinary  Corps,  an  enlisted  force,  the 
Nurse  Corps,  and  the  contract  surgeons  now  authorized  by  law. 

Major  General  William  C.  Gorgas,  M.C.,  Surgeon  General, 
is  chief  of  this  corps  with  rank  of  Major  General,  by  special 
act  of  Congress,  by  reason  of  his  distinguished  services  in  the 
Canal  Zone.  Its  personnel  and  organization  is  contingent  upon 
the  strength  of  the  Army.  It  consists  of  commissioned  officers 
below  the  grade  of  Brigadier  General  proportionally  distributed 
among  the  several  grades,  the  total  number  authorized  not  ex- 
ceeding seven  for  every  1,000  of  the  total  enlisted  strength  of 
the  Army  approximately  as  follows :  1  Major  General,  48  Colo- 
nels, 82  Lieutenant  Colonels,  360  Majors,  514  Captains,  514  First 
Lieutenants.  The  President  is  authorized  to  detail  five  medical 
officers  of  the  Army  for  duty  with  the  Military  Relief  Division 
of  the  American  National  Red  Cross. 

The  Surgeon  General  is  charged  with  the  expenditure  of  the 
Medical  Corps  appropriations  and  is  the  advisor  of  the  Secretary 
of  War  and  Chief  of  Staff  upon  matters  relating  to  the  health, 
sanitation,  and  physical  fitness  of  the  Army  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  medical  service.  He  exercises  military  control  over 

67 


68  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

the  general  hospitals,  medical  supply  depots,  hospital  ships  and 
trains,  but  not  over  the  medical  personnel  and  medical  units 
which  are  under  command  of  officers  of  the  line,  except  in  so  far 
as  relates  to  duties,  reports,  and  supplies  of  a  purely  professional 
nature. 

The  distinguishing  color  of  the  Medical  Corps  was  green  until 
after  the  Spanish-American  War.  In  1902  maroon  was  adopted, 
this  being  the  distinctive  color  of  the  medical  service  of  most  of 
the  great  military  powers.  The  distinctive  badge  of  the  Medi- 
cal Corps  is  the  caduceus. 

The  object  of  medical  administration  in  campaigns  are: 
First,  the  preservation  of  the  strength  of  the  Army  in  the  field — 
(a)  by  the  necessary  sanitary  measures;  (b)  by  the  retention  of 
effectiveness  at  the  front  and  the  movement  of  non-effectives 
to  the  rear  without  obstructing  military  operations;  and  (c) 
by  the  prompt  succor  of  the  wounded  on  the  battlefields  and 
then*  removal  to  the  rear  thus  preventing  the  unnecessary  with- 
drawal of  combatants  from  the  firing  line  to  accompany  the 
wounded  and  promoting  the  general  service  of  the  troops. 
Second,  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  sick  and  injured  at  the 
front,  in  the  line  of  communications  and  in  home  territory. 

The  Medical  Corps  is  specifically  charged  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sanitary  service  of  the  Army  as  follows: 

1.  The  initiation  of  sanitary  measures  to  insure  the  health 
of  the  troops. 

2.  The  direction  and  execution  of  all  measures  of  public 
health  among  the  inhabitants  of  occupied  territory. 

3.  The  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  on  the  march,  in  camp, 
on  the  battlefield  and  after  removal  therefrom. 

4.  The  methodical  disposition  of  the  sick  and  wounded  so  as 
to  insure  the  retention  of  those  effective  and  relieve  the  fighting 
force  of  the  non-effective. 

5.  The  transportation  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

6.  The   establishment   of   hospitals    and   other   formations 
necessary  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  injured.) 


THE  MEDICAL  CORPS  69 

7.  The  supply  of  the  sanitary  material  necessary  for  the 
health  of  the  troops  and  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  injured. 

8.  The  preparation  and  preservation  of  individual  reports 
of  sickness  and  injury  in  order  that  claims  may  be  adjudicated 
with  justice  to  the  Government  and  to  the  individual. 

In  addition  to  the  caring  for  the  sick  and  injured,  medical 
officers  act  as  sanitary  advisers  of  commanders  and  instruct 
the  troops  in  personal  hygiene.  Beginning  with  camp  sites  and 
the  water  supply  they  continue  their  supervision  of  these  and 
other  sanitary  matters  to  the  close  of  the  campaign. 

In  time  of  war  the  sanitary  service  includes : 

1.  All  persons  serving  in  or  employed  by  the  Medical  De- 
partment, including  officers  and  men   temporarily   or  perma- 
nently detailed  therein. 

2.  Members  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Association  assigned 
to  duty  with  the  Medical  Corps  by  competent  authority. 

3.  Individuals  whose  voluntary  service  with  the  Medical 
Corps  is  duly  authorized. 

Upon  the  Medical  Corps  devolves  the  examination,  accept- 
ance, and  swearing  into  the  service  of  all  recruits.  This  exami- 
nation is  more  rigid  than  that  required  by  life  insurance  com- 
panies, yet  no  able-bodied  young  man  of  good  repute  desirous 
of  army  service  need  fear  it. 

Military  service  is  so  exacting  and  the  consequences  of  illness 
or  physical  breakdown  under  the  stress  of  active  service  so 
serious  a  problem  to  the  Government  that  extreme  care  must  be 
exercised  hi  accepting  men  for  service.  Our  Government  ex- 
ceeds all  other  governments  in  gratitude  extended  to  disabled 
soldiers  through  pensioning.  One-half  year's  pay  is  donated 
by  the  Government  to  the  beneficiary  of  any  officer  or  enlisted 
man  who  dies  in  service  in  line  of  duty. 

The  Medical  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army  is  renowned. 
Entrance  therein  is  most  difficult.  On  its  rolls  for  active  service 
and  in  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps  are  long  lists  of  distinguished 
surgeons  and  specialists  many  of  whom  are  of  international 


70  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

repute.  The  annals  of  the  Medical  Corps  abound  with  specially 
gallant,  meritorious,  and  martyrdom  service  in  the  cause  of  medi- 
cal research,  science,  and  humanity.  It  remained  for  the  Army 
Medical  Corps  to  lead  the  world  in  sanitation  and  in  the  eradica- 
tion of  preventable  disease.  The  successful  completion  of  the 
Panama  Canal  without  abnormal  loss  of  life  through  dreaded 
tropical  diseases,  that  cut  short  the  earlier  attempt  of  the  French 
company,  is  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  to  scientific  research 
and  professional  skill  which  any  branch  of  service  has  erected 
to  its  glory  and  memory. 

ARMY  MEDICAL  COLLEGE 

In  1892  the  Army  Medical  School  was  organized  at  Wash- 
ington, for  the  purpose  of  preparing  young  officers  for  their 
future  duties  as  well  as  for  post-graduate  work  for  the 
older  officers.  It  gives  advanced  and  very  practical  courses 
in  military  hygiene,  sanitary  chemistry,  clinical  microscopy,  and 
bacteriology,  tropical  medicine,  the  military  aspects  of  medical 
and  surgical  practice,  ophtalmology  and  optometry,  Roentgen- 
ray  work,  Medical  Corps  administration  and  the  military  duties 
of  medical  officers,  hospital  corps  drill,  and  first  aid.  Lectures 
are  also  given  in  psychiatry  with  clinical  instruction  at  the 
Government  Hospital  for  the  Insane  and  a  short  course  in  mili- 
tary law  by  an  officer  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General's  Depart- 
ment. Instruction  in  horsemanship  is  given  by  officers  of 
Cavalry  at  Fort  Myer,  Va.  The  laboratories  of  the  Army  Med- 
ical School  are  equipped  for  research  work  as  well  as  clinical 
instruction  and  the  facilities  of  the  Army  Medical  Museum  and 
the  Library  of  the  Surgeon  General's  office  are  available  for  its 
teachers  and  students.  From  this  school  and  the  Surgeon 
General's  office  was  organized  in  1898  the  celebrated  Reed  and 
Carroll  Yellow  Fever  Commission.  Yellow  fever  is  now  a 
controllable  disease. 

The  work  of  this  board  made  possible  the  performance  of 
General  Gorgas  in  cleaning  up  Cuba  and  later  as  Sanitary 


THE  MEDICAL  CORPS  71 

Engineer  at  Panama,  to  make  the  building  of  the  canal  a  possi- 
bility and  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  death  rate  of  this  pest 
hole  as  to  make  it  compete  with  the  health  resorts. 

The  Department  of  Bacteriology,  Pathology,  and  Laboratory 
Diagnosis,  through  research  unsurpassed  by  any  medical  college 
in  the  world,  has  established  an  international  reputation.  When 
one  considers  what  would  be  a  reasonable  pecuniary  reimburse- 
ment to  the  Government  for  the  services  rendered  to  tropical 
peoples  and  various  countries  through  the  discoveries  of  the 
Army  Medical  Corps,  and  the  sanitary  measures  intro- 
duced to  stamp  out  and  permanently  eradicate  preventable 
and  communicable  diseases  which  claimed  thousands  of  victims 
annually,  it  would  appear  that  a  low  reasonable  estimate  would 
more  than  absorb  the  entire  expenditures  for  the  military  es- 
tablishments for  a  period  of  several  years. 

Another  notable  event  in  the  medical  history  of  this  continent 
was  the  discovery  by  Ashford  of  a  new  type  of  hook  worm  in- 
festing the  natives  of  Porto  Rico  and  his  successful  campaign 
for  the  eradication  of  this  disease.  His  most  recent  achieve- 
ment is  the  discovery  of  a  sort  of  yeast  or  fungus  which  he  be- 
lieves to  be  the  cause  of  sprue,  a  widely  prevalent  tropical  disease. 

In  1907  Lieut.  Colonel  F.  F.  Russell,  M.  C.,  became  interested 
in  the  vaccine  prophylaxis  of  typhoid  fever.  After  prolonged 
study  and  research,  he  evolved  a  solution  of  this  problem  such 
that  typhoid  fever  has  been  practically  eliminated  from  the 
Army.  His  method  of  typhoid  inoculation  was  adopted  by  the 
Government  in  other  departments  and  is  rapidly  becoming  a 
routine  measure  in  civil  life. 

Beri  beri,  one  of  the  scourges  of  the  far  east,  yearly  took  its 
toll  of  hundreds  of  lives  in  the  Philippines,  Japan,  and  China. 
While  much  work  had  already  been  done  in  determining  the 
cause  of  this  disease,  the  investigations  of  the  United  States 
Army  Board  for  the  Study  of  Tropical  Diseases  in  the  Philip- 
pines, aided  materially  in  proving  that  beri  beri  is  a  deficiency 
disease,  usually  due  to  the  excessive  consumption  of  polished 


72  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

rice.  As  a  result  of  recommendations  by  this  board,  a  more 
suitable  dietary  was  adopted  in  which  undermilled  rice  and 
beans  were  substituted  for  the  polished  rice.  This  change  re- 
sulted in  the  absolute  eradication  of  beri  beri  from  the  Philippine 
Scouts,  a  very  notable  achievement.  The  same  measures  car- 
ried out  in  civil  life  are  meeting  with  equal  success. 

Probably  the  most  important  advance  hi  recent  years  in  the 
treatment  of  amebic  dysentery  is  due  to  the  researches  of  Cap- 
tain Vedder  who  first  demonstrated  the  efficacy  evolved  by  the 
Army  Board  in  its  study  of  beri  beri. 

A  large  number  of  medical  officers  are  contributors  to  the 
columns  of  the  various  medical  and  scientific  journals.  Among 
those  who  have  written  text  books  which  have  received  inter- 
national acceptance  may  be  mentioned:  Sternberg,  Havard, 
LaGarde,  Keefer,  Lynch,  Munson,  Ashburn,  Craig,  and  Vedder. 
To  Sternberg's  work  is  largely  due  the  early  development  of  the 
science  of  bacteriology  in  this  country. 

THE    MEDICAL    RESERVE    CORPS 

The  Medical  Reserve  Corps  was  created  by  the  Reorganization 
Act  of  April  23,  1908,  to  take  the  place  of  the  Acting  Assistant 
Surgeons  and  Contract  Surgeons  of  former  days,  who  were 
civilian  physicians  attached  to  the  Army  but  without  definite 
military  status  or  authority.  They  now  have  the  rank  of  First 
Lieutenants  and  their  commissions  "confer"  upon  the  holders 
all  the  authority,  rights  and  privileges  of  commissioned  officers 
of  like  grade  in  the  Medical  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army, 
except  promotions  and  retirement,  but  only  when  called  into 
active  duty  and  during  the  period  of  such  active  duty.  [This 
Corps  will  cease  to  exist  on  June  3,  1917.  Members  thereof 
may  then  be  commissioned  in  the  Officers'  Reserve  Corps.] 

THE  DENTAL  CORPS 

The  Dental  Corps  was  created  by  the  Act  of  March  3,  1911, 
and  consists  of  Dental  Surgeons  and  Acting  Dental  Surgeons, 


THE  MEDICAL  CORPS  73 

the  total  number  of  which  together  cannot  exceed  the  proportion 
of  one  to  each  thousand  of  the  actual  enlisted  strength  of  the 
Army,  or  187.  All  original  appointments  to  the  Corps  are  made 
as  Acting  Dental  Surgeons  after  passing  a  satisfactory  physical 
and  professional  examination  before  a  board  composed  of  a 
medical  officer  and  two  dental  surgeons.  Applicants  must  be 
citizens  of  the  United  States  between,  twenty-one  and  twenty- 
seven  years  of  age  and  graduates  of  a  standard  dental  college. 
Acting  Dental  Surgeons  who  have  served  in  a  satisfactory  man- 
ner for  three  years  are  eligible,  after  passing  a  satisfactory  pro- 
fessional and  physical  examination,  to  be  commissioned  as 
First  Lieutenants  in  the  Dental  Corps.  Dental  Surgeons  have 
rank  and  pay  of  First  Lieutenant  during  first  eight  years  of 
service,  that  of  Captain  during  the  next  sixteen  years  and 
thereafter  that  of  Major. 

THE  VETERINARY  CORPS 

The  Veterinary  Corps  consisting  of  Veterinarians,  Assistant 
Veterinarians  and  Reserve  Veterinarians  consists  of  not  to  ex- 
ceed two  veterinarians  to  each,  regiment  of  cavalry,  one  for  every 
three  batteries  of  field  artillery,  one  for  each  battalion  of 
mounted  engineers,  17  as  inspectors  of  horses  and  mules  and 
as  veterinarians  in  the  Quartermaster  Corps,  and  7  as  inspectors 
of  meats. 

Veterinarians  have  the  rank  and  pay  of  Second  Lieutenants 
during  the  first  five  years  of  service,  that  of  First  Lieutenant 
during  the  next  ten  years,  that  of  Captain  for  fifteen  to  twenty 
years'  service,  and  that  of  Major  after  twenty  years  but  not  to  ex- 
ceed 7  Majors,  12  Captains,  34  First  Lieutenants,  65  Second 
Lieutenants. 

THE  ARMY  NURSE  CORPS 

The  Army  Nurse  Corps  was  created  by  the  Act  of  February 
2,  1901,  and  amended  by  Act  of  March  3,  1910,  by  which  a  defi- 


74  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

nite  status  was  given  to  graduate  female  nurses  who  had  previ- 
ously been  employed  under  contract  service  in  the  Army  but 
had  not  been  an  established  part  thereof.  At  its  head  is  a  super- 
intendent, Miss  Dora  Thompson,  who,  under  direction  of  the 
Surgeon  General,  has  general,  supervision  of  the  Corps,  her  office 
being  a  part  of  the  personnel,  division  of  the  Surgeon  General's 
office.  The  Corps  normally  is  composed  of  125  Chief  Nurses, 
nurses,  and  reserve  nurses  in  such  number  as  may  be  needed  for 
the  military  service.  Their  pay  is  $50  to  $60  per  month  with 
food  and  quarters  and  $10  additional  for  foreign  service.  They 
are  stationed  only  at  General  Hospitals  and  a  few  of  the  larger 
posts.  Chief  Nurses  are  appointed  from  members  of  the  Nurse 
Corps  by  the  Surgeon  General  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Superintendent  and  after  a  satisfactory  examination,  one  being 
stationed  at  each  hospital  or  station  where  nurses  are  on  duty. 
This  pay  may  be  increased  by  authority  of  the  Secretary  of 
War  not  to  exceed  $30  per  month.  Applicants  for  appointment 
in  the  Nurse  Corps  are  required  to  be  graduates  of  acceptable 
training  schools,  having  a  theoretical  and  practical  course  of  not 
less  than  two  years  and  attached  to  a  general  hospital  of  not 
less  than  one  hundred  beds.  They  must  pass  satisfactory 
physical  examination,  preferably  made  by  a  medical  officer  and 
a  professional  examination  conducted  by  the  Superintendent. 
Appointments  are  made  for  three  years  and  are  renewed  upon 
application  by  the  nurse  if  her  service  has  been  of  a  satisfactory 
character.  The  uniform  of  the  nurse  which  is  always  worn 
when  on  duty  consists  of  a  waist,  belt,  and  skirt  of  suitable  white 
material,  bishop  collar,  and  a  white  cap. 

The  history  of  expert  nursing  in  the  Army  is  of  recent  date, 
since  trained  nursing  as  a  profession  was  not  introduced  into 
this  country  until  1873.  Since  the  early  days  of  the  Republic 
women  have  been  employed  in  the  care  of  the  sick,  but  the  duties 
of  the  humble  predecessors  of  the  present  nurses  were  quite 
different  from  those  of  then*  accomplished  sisters  of  to-day  and 
are  now  relegated  to  the  hospital  orderlies. 


THE  MEDICAL  CORPS  75 

The  enlisted  force  of  the  Medical  Corps  is  recruited  by  original 
enlistment  and  by  transfers  from  other  branches  of  the  service. 
The  strength  of  this  force  is  approximately  five  per  cent,  of  the 
enlisted  strength  of  the  Army.  This  force  consists  of  Master 
Hospital  Sergeants,  $75  to  $99,  hospital  sergeants,  $65  to  $89, 
sergeants  first  class,  $50  to  $74,  sergeants,  $36  to  $60,  corporals, 
$24  to  $42,  cooks,  $30  to  $48,  horseshoers,  $30  to  $48,  saddlers, 
mechanics,  and  farriers,  $21  to  $39,  privates,  first  class,  $18  to 
$36,  privates,  $15  to  $25. 

One  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  medical  officers 
is  the  instruction  of  the  enlisted  men  to  which  a  certain  number 
of  hours  every  week  throughout  the  year  is  given  and  which 
never  ceases  so  long  as  the  soldier  is  in  the  service  in  connection 
with  his  daily  round  of  duties.  This  instruction  covers  the 
Articles  of  War,  the  orders,  and  regulations  in  regard  to  his 
behavior  and  bearing  upon  all  occasions,  bearer  drill  and  field 
work,  use  of  the  first-aid  packet  and  other  articles  contained  in 
the  Hospital  Corps  and  orderly  pouches,  methods  of  transport- 
ing wounded  in  peace  and  war,  the  use  and  care  of  the  field- 
hospital  equipment  and  the  pitching,  striking,  and  packing  of 
tents,  riding  and  care  of  animals,  and  military  sanitation,  es- 
pecially in  the  purification  of  water  and  proper  disposal  of 
excreta  and  wastes  and  the  care  of  the  person. 

The  Medical  Corps  has  developed  a  portable  water  bag  hold- 
ing twenty  gallons  of  water  for  field  service.  Into  this  quantity 
of  water  is  emptied  the  contents  of  a  small  tube  of  sterilizing 
compound.  This  bag  is  carried  folded  as  shown  in  the  full  page 
illustration  of  the  bugler  who  has  no  rifle  to  carry. 

Col.  Jefferson  R.  Kean,  M.C.,  Director  of  the  Military  Divi- 
sion American  National  Red  Cross,  has  contributed  the  follow- 
ing historical  data: 

"The  Medical  Corps  of  the  Army  had  its  beginning  July 
27,  1775.  After  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  a  field  hospital 
was  established  at  Cambridge.  Subsequently  general  hospitals 
were  established  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.  and  at  Williamsburg,  Va. 


76  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

"The  first  department  consisted  of  the  director  general  and 
chief  physician,  four  surgeons,  twenty  surgeon's  mates,  an 
apothecary,  a  clerk,  two  storekeepers  and  a  nurse  to  every  ten 
sick.  The  monthly  pay  was  director  general,  $120;  the  surgeon, 
$40;  the  surgeon's  mate,  $20;  the  storekeepers,  $4;  and  the 
nurses,  $2. 

"A  complete  and  elaborate  organization  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment modeled  on  that  of  the  British  Army  was  adopted 
April,  1777. 

"The  war  of  1812  brought  an  Army  again  into  the  field. 
The  Medical  Department  was  without  a  head,  the  surgeons  not 
even  having  assimilated  rank.  Good  medical  administration 
was,  therefore,  impossible.  In  March,  1813,  Congress  created 
the  positions  of  physician-and-surgeon  general  and  apothecary 
general,  the  latter  to  act  as  assistant  to  the  former  and  as  med- 
ical purveyor.  Many  hospitals  were  established  and  broken  up 
during  the  course  of  events.  They  were  well  administered,  well 
supplied,  and  competent  for  the  work  thrown  upon  them. 

"In  1821  a  further  advance  was  made  in  the  organization  of  the 
department  by  consolidating  the  regimental  surgeons  with  the 
staff  surgeons  so  that  the  corps  consisted  simply  of  one  Surgeon- 
General,  eight  surgeons  with  the  rank  and  pay  of  regimental 
surgeons,  and  forty-five  assistant  surgeons  with  the  pay  of  post 
surgeons.  The  system  of  employing  surgeons  under  contract 
was  then  instituted. 

"The  Medical  service  of  the  Mexican  War  was  performed  with 
marked  efficiency  and  devotion  to  duty. 

"The  thirteen  years  which  intervened  between  the  Mexican 
and  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  were  years  of  activity  and 
progress.  An  important  advance  in  the  standard  of  the  exam- 
ination for  admission  was  made  in  1849.  In  1850  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  Army  was  first  formally  represented  at  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  American  Medical  Association. 

"On  January  1, 1861,  the  Army  numbered  16,400  andthemed- 
cal  officers  115,  or  seven-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 


THE  MEDICAL  CORPS  77 

"The  medical  history  of  the  Civil  War  marks  an  epoch  in  mili- 
tary sanitary  organization.  The  end  of  the  Civil  War  found 
no  less  than  204  general  hospitals  containing  136,000  beds  in 
operation  in  the  territory  of  the  United  States  over  an  area 
extending  from  Maine  to  Florida  and  westward  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  The  Medical  Department  during  the  Civil  War 
disbursed  over  $47,000,000  and  cared  for  1,057,423  sick  in  its 
general  hospitals  alone  not  counting  those  that  passed  through 
the  field  and  regimental  hospitals. 

"This  great  struggle  has  left  behind  it  as  monuments  of  the 
labors  of  the  medical  profession  the  Army  Medical  Museum  and 
the  great  national  institution  known  as  the  Library  of  the 
Surgeon-General's  office.  The  record  of  then*  professional  work 
is  given  in  the  *  Medical  and  Surgical  History  of  the  Rebellion  ' 
which,  in  spite  of  the  advance  of  professional  knowledge  since 
that  time,  remains  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  statistical  informa- 
tion. 

"The  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War  in  1898  found  the  Medical 
Department  with  a  personnel  of  177  commissioned  officers  and 
750  enlisted  men.  When  a  volunteer  army  of  250,000  men  was 
mobilized  and  at  the  same  time  expeditions  embracing  prac- 
tically the  entire  regular  army  was  organized  to  attack  the  Span- 
ish possessions  of  Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  and  the  Philippines,  it  was 
immediately  evident  that  if  the  regular  regiments  were  to  be 
cared  for  by  regular  medical  officers  but  few  would  be  left  to 
organize  the  medical  service  of  the  volunteer  armies.  Each  of 
the  volunteer  regiments  brought  with  it  into  service  three  regi- 
mental surgeons  and  three  hospital  stewards,  but  no  privates. 
The  regimental  and  field  hospitals  had  to  be  organized  at  the 
expense  of  this  regimental  medical  personnel.  As  Congress 
failed  to  authorize  the  enlistment  of  Volunteer  Hospital  Corps 
men  the  situation  in  this  respect  became  at  once  acute  and  was 
only  partially  relieved  by  the  clumsy  expedient  of  authorizing 
the  transfer  of  men  from  the  volunteer  regiments  to  the  regular 
Hospital  Corps.  This  emergency  was  relieved  in  great  measure 


78  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

in  the  general  and  stationary  hospitals  by  the  employment  of 
female  trained  nurses  in  large  numbers. 

"It  was  the  accepted  belief  of  military  surgeons,  as  of  the  med- 
ical profession  at  large  in  1898,  that  the  principal  and  almost  the 
only  method  of  dissemination  of  typhoid  fever  was  by  polluted 
food  and  water  supplies.  A  typhoid  epidemic  swept  through 
all  the  camps  in  the  summer  of  1898  regardless  of  the  fact  that 
for  many  of  them  the  water  supply  was  artesian. 

"The  true  conditions  under  which  typhoid  fever  spread  as  a 
camp  disease  were  not  understood  until  the  publication  some 
years  later  of  the  remarkable  study  of  these  epidemics  made  by 
Major  Walter  Reed  of  the  Medical  Corps  and  Majors  Vaughan 
and  Shakespeare  of  the  Volunteer  Medical  Service,  which  cov- 
ered 20,738  cases  of  typhoid  fever  among  107,973  officers  and 
men  in  92  regiments.  The  military  and  sanitary  lessons  of  this 
war  were  most  instructive." 

The  Walter  Reed  General  Hospital  maintained  in  Washing- 
ton was  named  in  commemoration  of  the  services  rendered  to 
medical  science  and  humanity  by  Major  Reed,  M.C. 

The  annual  report  of  Major  General  Gorgas  for  1915  contains 
the  following  statistical  data  relative  to  the  health  of  the  army : 

"The  health  of  the  Army  for  1915  established  a  new  low  re- 
cord. The  death  rate  receded  to  4.40  per  thousand  and  tuber- 
culosis to  3.5  per  thousand. 

"Satisfactory  progress  was  made  in  checking  the  rates  of  cer- 
tain diseases,  which  in  the  past  took  a  considerable  toll.  For 
example,  there  were  but  seven  cases  of  typhoid  fever  during  the 
year  among  the  98,649  men  stationed  in  the  United  States, 
Alaska,  the  Philippines,  Hawaii,  Panama,  Porto  Rico,  and 
China,  including  the  Philippine  Scouts  and  the  Porto  Rican 
Regiment.  Of  these  seven  cases  but  two  had  received  the 
complete  course  of  vaccine  treatment.  The  number  of  opera- 
tions performed  on  officers  and  enlisted  men  was  5,604." 


CHAPTER  X 
CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS 

THE  Corps  of  Engineers  consists  of  a 
Chief    of    Engineers     (Brigadier    General 
William  M.  Black,  C.E.)  23  Colonels,  30 
Lieutenant  Colonels,  72  Majors,  152  Cap- 
tains, 148  First  Lieutenants,  79  Second  Lieutenants,  7  Chaplains 
and  enlisted  men  organized  into  Regiments,  Battalions,   and 
Companies  each  as  indicated  in  the  accompanying  diagrams. 

The  duties  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  comprise  reconnoitering 
and  surveying  for  military  purposes,  including  the  laying  out  of 
camps;  selection  of  sites,  and  formation  of  plans  and  estimates 
for  military  defenses;  construction  and  repair  of  fortifications 
and  their  accessories;  the  supervision  of  the  location  of  all  build- 
ings in  or  within  one  mile  of  any  fortification;  the  installation  of 
electric-power  plants  and  electric-power  cable  connected  with 
seacoast  batteries,  and  furnishing  the  necessary  electrical  sup- 
plies connected  therewith;  planning  and  superintending  of 
defensive  or  offensive  works  of  troops  in  the  field;  examination 
of  routes  of  communications  for  supplies  and  for  military  move- 
ments; construction  and  repair  of  military  roads,  railroads,  and 
bridges;  and  military  demolitions.  In  time  of  war,  within  the 
theatre  of  operations. 

It  has  charge  of  the  location,  design  and  construction  of 
wharves,  piers,  landings,  storehouses,  hospitals,  and  other 
structures  of  general  interest;  and  of  the  construction,  main- 
tenance, and  repair  of  roads,  ferries,  bridges,  and  incidental 
structures;  and  of  the  construction,  maintenance,  and  operation 

79 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ORGANIZATION  OF  ENGINEER  Tkoopis 

JBaUalion.      of    Mourned  Engineer*. 
1  Major 

2,  Ca.ptai.rLS 
1  l!l  Licvi/tervarvt 

1  Master  E*$m*er,(S«niorGra<k)(»-l)  $75 
3  „        ,(JuxvJorG«xde)(-»-3)  $65 

1  Battalion  S«ig«aryt  Major  $45 
1  B attaliotx  Supplu  Ser6cant  $45 
(2S«r6eants)  $36 
1  Corporal       $24 
1  WaAoncr  for  each  aulhori^ed  ux^on.  $21 


Company  C 


1  Captain. 


$45 

ESer6ea.Ti.-ts    lii  class  $45 
1  Mess  Sergeatvfc  $36 
1  Supply  Ser&earvt   $36 

1  Stable  <Seroeant  $36 
4  Sergeants   (•»•&)  $36 
8  Corporals   (+3)  $<?4 

2  HorsesKocr^          $3O 
1  Saddler  $21 
^  Cooks  $30 
£  Buglers  $15 

12  Privates   l&cla**  (+8^,  $18 

$13 


Strength  of  Engineer 


Beaca&r*n6tH 

o 

C-Ommx55ion.cdL 

33 

Foot 

14 

NTouxvM 

16 

Foot- 

4 

Jitou.«vt«d. 

16 

Etvlisted 

698 

331 

241 

109 

ri 

:WarSt«t^tK 

Commissioned 

33 

14 

16 

4 

16 

£rxlis-ted 

1038 

499 

338 

164 

ill 

80 


Walter  Reed  General  Hospital,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Major  Russell,  M.  C.,  inoculating  civilians  against  typhoid  fever 


Pack  section  Engineer  Company  which  carries  carpenters, 
pioneer,  entrenching,  and  demolition  outfits  for  hasty  work  where 
tool  wagon  can't  go 


Company  of  engineers  erecting  temporary  mess  shelter  ' 


Engineer  troops  telephoning  and  using  observation  instruments  in 

the  field 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ORGANIZATION  or  ENGINEER.  TROOPS  ^?AY 
(in  addition  to  quarters,  food  and  clothing.) 

Re^imeni:  of  Engineers  (Fool:) 

Colonel     1 

Lt.Colon.el      >  Commissioned 
3  Captains  /  , 

2  Master  Engineers  (Senior  Grade)  (+2)  $75 

1  Regimental  Sergeant  Major- 

2,   I  it  Supply  Sergeants  *45 

2  „  Color  „  *36 
(2  Servants)  *  *36 

1  Serieant  Bu«l«r 
1  Cook.    *30 
Z?  Wagoners  *21 


Jtla 


\T      1    •       AJ-  i  / Cowuviissiorved          Cor 

ILaptain  AdjutantJ 

1  BaUalion.  S^t.  Major   *45  , 

5  Master  En^in.eera,  junior  grade  (-^3)  ^65 


Major 
1  Bailed  ion  S*{JlIajor*45 


CotnpanijA      Compani.jD  Company  C         Co 


aptairx  "\ 

1  Si-Lieutenant  V  Commissioned, 
2~-Lieutenan-y 
1  First  Sergeant 
3  Sergeants  l^ 
1  Mess  Sergeant 
1  Supply  Sergeant 
1  Stable  Sergeant 
* 


\Z  Corporals  (+6)* 
1  HorfiesKoer- 
^  Buglers 
1  Saddler 


19  IS*-  claw  privates  (+12)*$18 
59  Private*  (4-34)*$  13 

*•  /ncr«<x«*    tn   atrzngih  authorised  in  the  discretion,  of  {be Presid-eni. 


81 


82  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  railroads  under  military  control,  including  the  construction 
and  operation  of  armored  trains. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  is  also  charged  with  the  improvement 
of  rivers  and  harbors;  with  matters  arising  under  the  laws  for 
the  protection  and  preservation  of  navigable  waters,  including 
the  establishment  of  harbor  lines,  anchorage  grounds,  and  rules 
and  regulations  therefor;  rules  and  regulations  for  canals  owned, 
operated,  or  maintained  by  the  United  States,  for  any  public 
navigable  channel  improved  under  authority  of  Congress,  and 
for  the  navigation  of  streams  on  which  the  floating  of  loose 
timber  and  sack  rafts  is  the  principal  method  of  navigation. 
It  attends  to  the  issuance  of  permits  for  the  construction,  altera- 
tion, maintenance,  and  operation  of  bridges,  for  structures  or 
work  in  navigable  waters,  and  the  removal  of  wrecks  and  other 
obstructions  to  navigation;  with  questions  pertaining  to  the 
supervision  of  the  harbor  of  New  York  and  adjacent  waters 
to  prevent  obstructive  and  injurious  deposits;  with  surveying 
and  charting  the  Great  Lakes,  the  natural  navigable  waters  of 
the  New  York  State  canals,  Lake  Champlain,  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  and  other  boundary  and  connecting  waters  between  said 
lake  and  Lake  Superior;  with  the  preservation  of  Niagara  Falls; 
with  public  buildings  and  grounds  in  the  District  of  Columbia; 
with  the  water  supply  of  Washington,  D.  C.;  with  the  construc- 
tion of  monuments  and  memorials;  and  with  the  construction 
of  roads  and  bridges  in  the  Yellowstone  and  Crater  Lake  Na- 
tional Parks. 

It  collects,  arranges,  and  preserves  all  correspondence,  reports, 
memoirs,  estimates,  plans,  drawings,  such  deeds  and  titles  as 
relate  to  Washington  Aqueduct  and  public  buildings  and  grounds 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  models  which  concern  or  relate 
in  any  wise  to  the  several  duties  above  enumerated. 

The  Engineer  Corps  has  reared  many  enduring  monuments 
to  its  engineering  and  constructive  skill  in  the  form  of  public 
works  and  utilities.  The  greatest  achievement  is  the  successful 
completion  of  the  Panama  Canal.  This  huge  task  was  accom- 


CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS  83 

plished  under  the  personal  supervision  of  Major  General  George 
W.  Goethals  while  a  Colonel  of  Engineers.  Congress  bestowed 
upon  him  the  rank  and  pay  of  Major  General  as  a  reward  for 
having  accomplished  this  task  in  so  masterly  a  manner.  Officers 
who  assisted  General  Goethals  were  also  rewarded  by  Congress 
by  increased  rank  and  privilege  of  retirement. 

The  public  works  assigned  by  law  to  the  Corps  of  Engineers 
afford  the  best  possible  practical  engineering  training  for  the 
great  engineering  operations  of  which  modern  war  so  largely 
consists  and  also  provide  a  strong  and  well-distributed  engineer- 
ing organization  having  practical  working  knowledge  of  all 
parts  of  the  country  and  its  engineering  resources,  and  instantly 
available  for  transfer  to  military  construction  work  in  war 
emergencies. 

Before  public  money  is  spent  in  any  of  the  civil  improve- 
ments connected  with  rivers  and  harbors,  very  careful  investiga- 
tions are  made.  Congress  directs  a  preliminary  examination 
under  the  Chief  of  Engineers.  An  Engineer  officer  stationed 
near  the  locality  makes  a  preliminary  examination  and  renders 
a  report,  based  on  economic,  commercial,  and  engineering  in- 
vestigations, with  recommendation  and  estimate  of  cost.  This 
report  goes  to  the  Division  Engineer,  who  forwards  it  with  his 
opinion  to  the  Board  of  Engineers  for  Rivers  and  Harbors. 
This  is  a  permanent  board  of  five  Engineer  officers,  of  wide 
experience,  sitting  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  after  thorough  investi- 
gation. This  board  passes  upon  the  report  and  forwards  it  to 
the  Chief  of  Engineers.  Upon  his  recommendation,  favorable 
or  unfavorable,  the  Secretary  of  War  transmits  it  to  Congress 
for  such  action  as  that  body  may  deem  fit. 

No  new  project  can  be  authorized  by  the  Engineer  Depart- 
ment without  the  direction  of  Congress.  Every  safeguard  is 
employed  to  prevent  the  advancement  of  projects  not  likely  to 
prove  of  such  value  as  to  warrant  its  cost,  but  every  opportunity 
is  given  to  interested  persons  to  be  heard  by  all  officers  who 
pass  upon  the  matter. 


84  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  magnitude  of  the  engineering  operations  and  organization 
of  the  Engineer  Department  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
figures:  during  1914  this  department  expended  over  $49,000,000 
on  public  work,  about  half  under  contracts  and  about  half  by 
hired  labor.  About  half  of  the  total  was  for  dredging  or  similar 
excavation,  the  aggregate  amount  of  which  in  1913  was  about 
213,000,000  cubic  yards  which  exceeds  the  entire  excavation  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  would  equal  a  prism  forty -five  feet  wide 
and  nine  feet  deep  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

The  hired  labor  force  of  the  Engineer  Department  exclusive  of 
contractors'  men  exceeds  25,000  men.  They  are  organized  under 
officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  in  56  engineer  districts  located 
in  all  the  principal  centres  of  engineer  operations  and  supply. 
In  these  districts  617  separate  works  were  carried  on  in  connec- 
tion with  which  there  were  in  force  1,260  contracts.  Fifty 
preliminary  examinations  and  38  surveys  were  made  of  proposed 
new  works,  and  153  works  previously  authorized  were  ree'x- 
amined  under  the  direction  of  Congress.  Over  2,200  permits 
for  structures  in  and  across  navigable  rivers  were  issued  includ- 
ing 606  bridge  permits.  Over  160  wrecks  endangering  naviga- 
tion were  removed.  Six  hundred  and  sixty-five  new  contracts 
were  made. 

The  floating  plant  consisting  of  26  dredges,  190  steam  tugs 
and  survey  boats,  328  gasoline  tugs  and  survey  boats  and 
launches,  61  snag  boats,  together  with  a  large  number  of 
barges,  and  minor  craft,  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  Engi- 
neer Department  in  connection  with  this  work. 

ENGINEERS    IN    WAR 

While  all  this  civil  engineering  experience  is  of  direct  value 
in  war,  the  fundamental  necessity  in  the  military  engineer 
is  that  he  be  a  soldier  both  in  discipline  and  in  knowledge 
of  military  operations.  The  training  of  officers  of  the  Corps 
of  Engineers  is  obtained  at  the  United  States  Military 


Drill.     Installing  field  searchlight 


Pile  driver  improvised  with  pontoon  material  mounted  on  pontoon 
boats  by  Engineer  troops 


- 
o 
o 

W 


CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS  85 

Academy  (or,  in  the  case  of  civilian  appointees,  by  a  course  in 
engineering  at  an  approved  technical  school,  which  is  a  pre- 
requisite to  appointment),  followed  by  training  with  troops, 
training  at  the  Engineer  School  at  Washington  and  at  the  Field 
Engineer  School  at  Fort  Leaven  worth.  All  this  military  and 
theoretical  training  is  consolidated  and  made  practical  by  actual 
engineering  work  hi  the  field  and  by  experience  in  handling  men 
and  in  controlling  the  forces  of  nature  in  the  various  public 
works  assigned  to  the  Engineer  Department. 

In  campaign  engineer  troops  are  assigned,  normally  one 
pioneer  regiment  of  six  companies  to  each  infantry  division. 
These  pioneer  companies  are  organized  and  equipped  as  follows : 
1  captain,  2  first  lieutenants  and  1  second  lieutenant,  with 
164  enlisted  men  including  14  sergeants  and  18  corporals.  Of 
these  140  are  fully  equipped  and  trained  as  infantry,  and  in  addi- 
tion are  trained  in  engineer  duties  connected  with  repair  of  roads, 
repair  and  construction  of  bridges,  preparation  of  fords,  repair 
of  railroads;  hi  laying  out,  getting  materials  for,  and  executing 
field  fortifications  both  offensive  and  defensive  such  as  intrench- 
ments,  redoubts,  obstacles  of  all  kinds,  land  mines,  sapping, 
demolitions,  clearings,  etc. ;  24  men  are  mounted  on  horses  and 
equipped  with  rule,  pistol,  sketching  outfits,  and  accompanied 
by  a  pack  section  of  five  mules  that  carry  tools  and  equipment 
for  rapid  pioneer  operations  on  a  smaller  scale  where  the  less 
mobile  company  tool  wagons  cannot  go. 

The  demolition  outfit  with  this  mounted  section  is  very  com- 
plete and  the  reconnaissance  and  sketching  can  be  done  very 
rapidly  and  efficiently.  For  service  with  a  cavalry  division  a 
battalion  of  mounted  engineers  is  provided,  of  strength  about 
one-half  that  of  the  foot  battalions. 

When  two  or  more  divisions  are  combined  into  a  field 
army  a  pontoon  battalion  is  attached,  organized,  and  equipped 
as  a  pioneer  battalion  of  engineers  with  the  addition  of 
light  pontoon  equipage  sufficient  for  372  feet  of  bridge  and 
heavy  pontoon  equipage  sufficient  for  900  feet  of  bridge.  All 


86  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

engineer  troops  are  trained  for  both  pioneer  and  pontoon  duty. 
They  are  provided  with  field  searchlights,  flares,  etc.,  to  light 
the  battlefield  at  night. 

In  a  field  army  each  division  of  troops  has  a  battalion  of 
engineers  called  pioneers,  and  a  senior  engineer  officer  on  the 
staff  of  the  division  commander. 

A  field  engineering  manual  is  supplied  as  a  guide  in  the  con- 
struction of  field  fortifications,  the  use  of  artificial  cover,  barbed- 
wire  entanglements,  and  other  forms  of  obstructions,  revetting, 
mining,  sapping,  demolition  tools  and  high  explosives,  bridge 
and  road  building,  railroading,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  training  as  soldiers,  which  is  common  to 
all  arms,  the  training  and  instruction  of  engineer  troops  is  in- 
dustrial, mechanical,  and  practical  and  such  as  tends  to  qualify 
men  as  skilled  laborers  and  artisans  and  thus  promote  their  suc- 
cess in  civil  life  after  completing  an  enlistment. 

Owing  to  the  limited  numbers  of  pioneer  troops,  only  the 
more  important  engineering  tasks  are  assigned  to  them.  Each 
infantryman  and  cavalryman  is  equipped  with  individual 
entrenching  tools,  and  field  artillery  with  battery  tools,  and  hasty 
entrenchment  is  practised  by  troops  of  all  arms.  The  division 
engineer  train  has  one  wagon  of  engineer  tools  for  each  regiment 
of  infantry  carrying  picks,  shovels,  axes,  saws,  sand  bags, 
etc. 

A  typical  United  States  Army  firing-line  trench  for  a  war 
strength  company  of  infantry  (150  men)  is  reproduced  by 
courtesy  from  "Fundamentals  of  Military  Training."  Major 
Lincoln  C.  Andrews,  U.  S.  Cavalry,  from  special  chapter  on 
"The  Engineer  Corps,"  by  Lieut.  Colonel  S.  E.  Cheney,  C.  E. 

The  communication  trench  is  a  deep  zigzag  trench  or  passage- 
way leading  to  the  rear  where  the  reliefs,  when  not  on  the  firing 
line,  eat,  sleep,  and  rest  with  proper  protection  from  enfilading 
fire.  Normally  two  companies  would  be  resting  while  one 
company  occupies  the  firing-line  trench,  it  being  necessary  when 
in  contact  with  the  enemy  to  occupy  the  trench  constantly. 


CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS 


87 


Trench  fighting  on  the  various  battlefronts  of  the  European 
War  is  estimated  at  about  1,800  miles.  The  various  armies 
virtually  dug  themselves  into  the  earth  and  by  sapping  and 
tunneling  carried  on  by  the  engineers  often  maintained  trenches 
within  talking  distance  of  then-  foes.  This  type  of  warfare 
made  it  possible  to  keep  up  active  operations  throughout  the 


-3v5  ^ 


Area 
7sq.ft. 


Mw^v/y///.? 


5'0 


Latrine 


De-fail  of  Traverses 

16' > 


From  "Fundamentals  of  Military  Training' 

Typical  U.  S.  Army  firing  trench  for  a  war  strength  infantry  company 
of  150  men 


88  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

winter.  It  renders  cavalry  useless  for  the  time  being  and  brings 
heavy  field  artillery  and  engineers  into  primary  importance. 

In  the  building  of  our  seacoast  defenses  the  Corps  of  Engineers 
designs  and  constructs  all  gun  emplacements,  including  the 
ammunition  serving  devices,  all  fire-control  stations  and  all 
steam  and  electric  power  plants,  with  the  cables,  conduits,  and 
machines  except  the  motors  on  gun  carriages  and  for  torpedo 
defense.  The  design  and  emplacement  of  coast  defense  search- 
lights is  also  under  this  corps. 

The  annual  report  for  1915  of  General  Dan  C.  Kingman,  who 
retired  from  active  service  as  Chief  of  Engineers  of  the  Army, 
March  6, 1916,  contains  the  following  bearing  upon  the  necessity 
of  keeping  our  coast  fortifications  abreast  of  military  science: 

"It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  stated  that  the  art  of  forti- 
fication is  a  progressive  one.  It  must  continually  grow  to  keep 
pace  with  the  new  discoveries  which  give  it  special  advantages 
or  to  meet  and  offset  progress  in  the  development  of  naval  ves- 
sels and  armament  against  which  the  forts  are  expected  to  con- 
tend. However  carefully  planned  and  constructed,  a  battery 
must  always  pertain  to  the  date  when  completed  and  must  be 
out  of  date  in  so  far  as  relates  to  things  which  have  been  dis- 
covered or  developed  since  the  battery  was  planned. 

"  Seacoast  defenses  are  designed  to  fight  naval  vessels  and  to 
thus  protect  certain  cities,  harbors,  or  other  utilities  from  bom- 
bardment by  an  enemy's  vessels  within  any  of  the  area  covered 
by  the  seacoast  guns.  In  locating  and  designing  batteries  the 
range  and  power  of  the  naval  guns,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
such  guns  which  can  be  brought  against  these  fortifications,  must 
be  given  consideration,  and,  unless  our  fortifications  are  to  be- 
come obsolete,  changes  in  any  of  the  elements  of  naval  offense 
must  be  met  by  corresponding  changes  in  seacoast  batteries, 
and  these  changes  must  in  most  cases  consist  not  merely  of 
modifying  the  older  emplacements  by  affording  additional  pro- 
tection for  the  gun  platforms  and  magazines  against  the  in- 
creased power  of  naval  guns,  or  in  mounting  more  powerful 


CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS  89 

guns  in  these  older  emplacements,  but  rather  in  the  construction 
of  absolutely  new  batteries  in  new  locations.  The  older  batter- 
ies were  necessarily  designed  and  located  so  as  to  obtain  the 
maximum  effect  with  guns  of  the  range  of  those  to  be  mounted 
in  these  emplacements.  If  the  guns  which  were  to  be  mounted 
in  these  older  batteries  had  been  of  longer  range,  the  locations 
of  the  batteries  would  in  many  cases  have  been  different,  and 
if  more  powerful  and  longer-range  guns  be  mounted  in  these 
older  batteries  a  large  proportion  of  this  increased  power  and 
range  will  in  most  cases  be  lost.  4 

"For  the  above  reasons  a  fixed  project  for  seacoast  defense 
can  never  be  adequate,  and  its  obsolence  must  begin  before  it 
can  be  completed.  It  is  believed  that  our  seacoast  defenses  can 
best  be  kept  sufficiently  up  to  date  by  the  adoption  of  a  regular 
annual  program  which  will  provide  for  replacing  each  year 
from  four  to  ten  per  cent,  of  our  older  emplacements,  depending 
upon  the  size  and  condition  of  the  older  equipment  and  the  rate 
of  progress  being  made  in  naval  offense." 


"Let  no  man  dare  to  say,  if  lie  would  speak  the  truth,  that  the  question  of 
preparation  for  national  defense  is  a  question  of  war  or  of  peace. 

"If  there  is  one  passion  more  deep-seated  in  the  hearts  of  our  fellow  country- 
men than  another,  it  is  the  passion  for  peace.  No  nation  in  the  world  ever 
more  instinctively  turned  away  from  the  thought  of  war  than  this  nation  to 
which  we  belong. 

"But  there  is  something  that  the  American  people  love  better  than  they  love 
peace.  They  love  principles  upon  which  then-  political  life  is  founded.  They 
are  ready  at  any  time  to  fight  for  the  vindication  of  their  character  and  of 
their  honor.  They  will  at  no  time  seek  a  contest,  but  they  will  at  no  time 
cravenly  avoid  it,  because  if  there  is  one  thing  that  the  country  ought  to  fight 
for  and  that  every  nation  ought  to  fight  for,  it  is  the  integrity  of  its  own  con- 
victions. 

"We  must  all  of  us  think,  from  this  time  out,  in  terms  of  the  world,  and  must 
learn  what  it  is  that  America  has  set  out  to  maintain  as  a  standard  bearer  for 
all  those  who  love  liberty  and  justice  and  the  righteousness  of  political  action." 

— WOODKOW  WILSON. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT 

Brigadier  General  William  Crozier,  O.  D.,  has 
been  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  since  1901.  He  is  as- 
sisted by  10  Colonels,  15  Lieutenant  Colonels,  32 
Majors,  42  Captains,  42  First  Lieutenants. 

The  Ordnance  Department  provides,  preserves, 
distributes,  and  accounts  for  all  the  munitions 
of  war  required  for  the  fortresses  of  the  country,  the  armies  in 
the  field,  and  for  the  militia,  and  establishes  and  maintains 
arsenals  and  depots  for  their  manufacture  and  safe-keeping. 
These  duties  include  that  of  determining  the  general  principles 
of  construction  and  of  prescribing  in  detail  the  models  and 
forms  of  all  military  weapons  employed  in  war.  They  include 
also  the  duties  of  prescribing  the  regulations  for  the  proof  and 
inspection  of  all  these  weapons,  for  maintaining  uniformity  in 
their  fabrication,  and  for  insuring  their  good  quality. 

Ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  include  cannon,  artillery,  am- 
munition, artillery  carriages,  vehicles  and  equipment,  small 
arms,  ammunition  and  accoutrements;  horse  equipments  and 
harness  for  the  field  artillery  and  horse  equipments  for  cavalry 
and  mounted  men;  tools,  machinery,  and  materials  for  the 
ordnance  service;  and  all  property  of  whatever  nature  supplied 
to  the  military  establishments  by  the  Ordnance  Department. 
The  Ordnance  Department  supplies  practically  all  the  small  arms 
and  equipment  of  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 

Long  experience  has  proved  that  these  articles  of  ordnance 
equipment  can  be  most  economically  and  satisfactorily  manu- 

90 


THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  91 

factored  at  Government  arsenals.  There  have  not  been  estab- 
lished arsenals  in  number  and  capacity  to  provide  the  enormous 
quantities  of  ordnance  material  and  equipment  required,  thus 
making  it  necessary  to  fall  back  upon  private  factories  for  much 
of  this  kind  of  supplies,  even  in  time  of  peace,  and  the  capacity 
of  these  establishments  is  entirely  inadequate  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  a  large  war. 

In  its  various  work  it  employs  over  5,500  workmen  in  six 
great  establishments  which  are  guarded  and  generally  cared  for 
by  600  enlisted  men.  Much  of  the  work  is  of  a  scientific  char- 
acter involving  the  application  of  chemistry,  mechanics,  and 
electricity.  To  translate  theoretical  study  into  drawings  and 
specifications  which  precede  production  many  draftsmen  are 
employed.  For  the  last  two  years  the  amount  expended  by  the 
Ordnance  Department  has  averaged  nearly  $15,000,000  an- 
nually. 

The  following  establishments  are  maintained  by  the  Ordnance 
Department: 

Watertown  Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass.,  where  are  manufac- 
tured seacoast  gun  carriages  and  projectiles. 

Springfield  Armory,  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  are  manu- 
factured rifles,  pistols,  revolvers,  and  machine  guns. 

Watervliet  Arsenal,  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  which  is  the  gun  factory 
for  the  manufacture  of  cannon  of  all  calibers  for  field  and  sea- 
coast  artillery. 

Picatinny  Arsenal,  near  Dover,  N.  J.,  is  the  army  powder 
factory  and  here  are  manufactured  powders  for  all  the  types  of 
ordnance  used  by  the  army  from  the  30-caliber  rifle  to  the  16- 
inch  gun  and  high  explosives  for  filling  projectiles.  At  this 
arsenal  are  maintained  large  reserves  of  powders  and  raw  ma- 
terials necessary  for  their  manufacture. 

Frankfort  Arsenal,  at  Bridesburg,  Pa.,  a  suburb  of  Philadel- 
phia, includes  in  its  product,  ammunition  for  both  the  mobile 
and  seacoast  artillery  and  for  small  arms  together  with  the 
many  complicated  mechanical  devices  now  used  as  essential 


92  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

accessories  in  warfare  including  range-finding  instruments,  fire- 
control  material,  telescopic  sights,  and  fuze  setters. 

Rock  Island  Arsenal  near  Rock  Island,  HI.,  on  an  island  in 
the  Mississippi  River,  manufactures  the  personal  and  horse 
equipment  for  the  soldier  and  carriages  and  vehicles  for  mobile 
artillery.  It  also  includes  a  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  small 
arms. 

The  Sandy  Hook  Proving  Ground,  at  Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.,  is 
maintained  as  a  proving  ground  for  the  test  of  all  the  ordnance 
material  manufactured  or  purchased  by  the  Department  and  for 
the  test  of  experimental  material  under  development.  As  all 
material,  including  guns,  carriages,  ammunition,  is  manufac- 
tured or  procured  under  specifications  requiring  samples  as 
manufactured  to  be  actually  tested  under  service  conditions, 
an  extensive  and  thoroughly  equipped  plant  must  be  maintained 
for  the  purpose. 

In  addition  to  the  above  establishments,  whose  primary  pur- 
pose is  manufacturing,  the  Ordnance  Department  maintains 
the  following  establishments  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing, 
storing,  issuing,  and  repairing  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  for 
the  troops  and  fortifications  in  the  districts  or  departments  to 
which  they  are  assigned: 

New  York  Arsenal,  Governor's  Island,  New  York  Harbor. 

Augusta  Arsenal,  Augusta,  Ga. 

San  Antonio  Arsenal,  San  Antonio,  Tex. 

Benicia  Arsenal,  Benicia,  California. 

Manila  Ordnance  Depot,  Manila,  Philippine  Islands. 

Hawaiian  Ordnance  Depot,  Honolulu,  H.  T. 

Panama  Ordnance  Depot,  Canal  Zone. 

One  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  Ordnance  Department 
was  the  design  and  construction  of  the  16-inch  gun  and  carriage. 
This  gun,  which  weighs  127  tons  and  is  49  feet  long,  was  finished 
in  1901.  It  was  constructed  at  the  United  States  Arsenal  at 
Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  and  upon  completion  was  taken  to  the  prov- 
ing grounds  at  Sandy  Hook  for  test,  meeting  the  severest  re- 


fragmentation  of  exploded  3  in.  common  steel  shell,  2,378  pieces 


Ordnance  Department  16  in.  rifle 


Wire  section  of  a  field  company 


Signaling  by  heliograph 


Pack  radio  set 


THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  93 

quirements.  Although  this  rifle  is  fifteen  years  old,  its  known 
efficiency  as  a  defensive,  direct-fire  weapon  has  not  been  ex- 
celled by  any  gun  of  any  foreign  country.  This  gun,  its  carriage 
and  emplacement  will  cost  about  a  half  million  dollars.  Its 
range  and  energy  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  powder  used.  With  a  charge  of  smokeless  powder, 
weighing  675  pounds  giving  a  maximum  powder  pressure  of 
between  37,000  and  38,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  gun 
will  give  a  projectile  weighing  2,400  pounds,  a  muzzle  velocity 
of  2,300  feet  per  second,  developing  a  muzzle  energy  of  88,000 
foot-tons.  When  fired  at  its  maximum  range  the  projectile 
reaches  an  extreme  height  of  30,516  feet  or  590  feet  higher  than 
the  combined  height  of  Mont  Blanc  and  Pike's  Peak. 

This  16-inch  breech-loading  rifle  is  the  first  of  a  number  of  gi- 
gantic weapons  which  are  to  be  constructed  for  the  seacoast 
defense  of  the  United  States.  The  Endicott  Board  in  1886 
reached  the  conclusion  that  a  number  of  these  powerful  weapons 
should  be  provided  for  the  protection  of  the  principal  harbors 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  gun  described  above  was  con- 
structed in  inaugurating  this  project.  The  Endicott  Board's 
plan  was  later  revised  by  the  substitution  of  14-inch  guns  for 
16-inch  guns,  and  a  number  of  the  former  have  been  built  and 
mounted  in  the  seacoast  fortifications,  while  the  War  Depart- 
ment decided  to  place  the  16-inch  gun  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  War  Department  has  recently  decided 
to  install  16-inch  guns  in  certain  of  the  more  important  seacoast 
fortifications,  and  the  guns  to  be  built  for  this  purpose  will 
be  vastly  more  powerful  than  their  prototype  described 
above. 

General  Crozier  has  brought  the  manufacturing  functions 
of  the  Ordnance  Department  to  a  condition  of  very  high  effi- 
ciency by  putting  into  effect  scientific  methods  of  shop  man- 
agement which  have  resulted  in  reducing  the  manufacturing 
cost  of  such  material,  improving  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
products  of  these  plants,  and  at  the  same  time  increasing  materi- 


94  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ally  the  wages  paid  employees,  and  improving  labor  conditions 
in  general.  The  success  attending  his  efforts  has  attracted  wide 
attention  among  those  interested  in  the  improvement  of  eco- 
nomic and  industrial  conditions.  Under  legislation  obtained  by 
the  Ordnance  Department  it  is  possible  to  encourage  the  inter- 
est of  the  civilian  employees  of  the  arsenals  by  awarding  cash 
payments  for  meritorious  suggestions  submitted  by  them  for 
reducing  the  cost  of  manufacture  by  making  improvements  in 
methods  or  operations.  In  the  past  few  years  many  such  pay- 
ments have  been  made. 

The  following  items  of  general  interest  appear  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  for  1915 : 

"The  reserve  ordnance  equipment  required  for  a  mobile  army 
of  450,000  officers  and  men,  except  field  artillery,  was  consider- 
ably increased  during  the  year. 

**Of  the  323  batteries  of  Field  Artillery  required  for  such  an 
army  the  necessary  number  of  field  guns,  carriages,  limbers 
and  equipment  for  228  batteries  are  now  on  hand  or  under 
manufacture.  This  exceeds  the  number  of  batteries  now  on 
hand.  It  was  pointed  out  that  this  country  is  dependent  upon 
Chile  for  its  supply  of  nitric  acid  and  that  a  source  of  supply 
should  be  established  in  this  country,  there  being  in  operation 
in  Europe  plants  for  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  render- 
ing it  available  in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid. 

"It  appears  that  although  field  artillery  has  played  an  im- 
portant rdle  in  all  modern  wars,  its  use  has  now  been  extended 
to  the  point  where  it  becomes  a  question  as  to  whether  it  does  not 
actually  make  the  main  attack,  which  is  rendered  permanently 
effective  by  the  infantry  advance,  instead  of,  as  formerly  con- 
sidered, being  used  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  main  attack  by 
the  infantry.  In  any  case,  the  employment  of  field  artillery 
has  undoubtedly  been  greatly  extended.  The  amount  of  ammu- 
nition used  by  it  has  been  increased  beyond  anything  prev- 
iously estimated,  and  the  heavier  calibers  have  come  into 
much  greater  prominence  due  to  their  ability  to  destroy  the 


THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  95 

very  excellent  trenches  possible  to  construct  in  a  comparatively 
short  time. 

"The  German  and  Austrian  Armies  in  their  campaigns 
through  Galicia  in  1915  used  heavy  artillery  very  largely  and 
were  able  to  keep  it  up  with  the  advancing  troops  and  to  keep  it 
supplied  with  ammunition.  It  consequently  appears  fairly 
definite  that  an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  the  heavier  calibers 
over  what  was  formerly  considered  necessary  will  be  adopted. 

"The  construction  of  mounts  for  guns,  both  seacoast  and 
field  a  few  years  ago,  involved  no  necessity  for  serious  considera- 
tion of  long  ranges  because  of  the  inability  to  determine  the 
striking  point  of  the  projectiles  and  consequent  impracticability 
of  correction  of  fire.  The  ranges  gradually  increased,  however, 
with  the  introduction  of  powerful  optical  instruments,  but  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  it  was  generally  held  that  the  limit  of 
effective  firing  was  certainly  not  greater  than  the  distance  at 
which  these  instruments  were  useful,  and  that  in  general  even 
at  such  ranges  the  probability  of  hitting,  due  to  inaccuracy  of 
observation,  atmospheric  changes,  unavoidable  variations  in 
powder  and  material,  etc.,  was  so  small  as  not  to  justify  the 
expenditure  of  ammunition. 

"The  development  of  the  aeroplane  and  its  use  in  directing 
fire  has  further  extended  the  limits  at  which  observations  may 
be  had,  so  that  the  problem  of  effective  firing  at  great  distances 
is  now  reduced  to  a  question  as  to  whether  the  material  will  re- 
spond sufficiently  to  the  corrections  given  by  the  observer,  and 
whether  the  percentage  of  hits  which  may  be  expected  under 
favorable  conditions  at  the  extreme  ranges  justifies  the  expendi- 
ture of  ammunition.  The  evidence  so  far  obtained  indicates 
that  both  of  these  questions  are  believed  by  the  powers  at  war 
to  have  been  answered  in  the  affirmative.  It  is  known  that  the 
belligerents  are  firing  at  greater  ranges  than  have  heretofore 
been  considered  practicable,  and  that  in  some  cases  effective 
results  have  been  obtained.  As  a  result,  older  designs  of  mate- 
rial are  being  modified  for  increased  range  as  far  as  practicable, 


96  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

and  new  designs  are  being  laid  down  for  both  field  and  seacoast 
carriages,  to  give  greater  range  than  considered  necessary  in  the 
past,  and  also  for  larger  calibers  with  heavier  projectiles. 

"It  has  been  generally  considered  that  machine  guns  were 
mainly  valuable  on  the  defensive  and  that  the  number  required 
was  consequently  not  very  great.  At  least  one  of  the  belliger- 
ents has  used  these  guns  on  the  offensive  as  flank  supports  for 
advancing  troops,  in  addition  to  employ  ing  them  extensively 
on  the  defensive,  and  has  supplied  them  in  quantities  much 
greater  than  any  heretofore  held  to  be  called  for.  This  use  has 
been  so  effective  as  to  point  strongly  to  the  necessity  for  these 
guns  in  very  much  larger  quantity  than  previously  considered 
advisable,  and  to  a  revision  of  views  as  to  the  method  in  which 
they  should  be  employed. 

"An  absolute  necessity  is  that  they  should  be  sufficiently 
light  so  that  they  can  be  carried  a  considerable  distance  by  hand, 
and  this  condition  is  being  met  by  recent  manufacturers  of  all 
guns  of  this  type  so  far  as  known." 

The  enlisted  personnel  of  the  Ordnance  Department  is  organ- 
ized as  detachments  for  duty  at  arsenals,  depots,  and  the  Sandy 
Hook  Proving  Ground.  Then*  duties  are  more  or  less  non- 
military,  but  technical,  and  have  mainly  do  to  with  the  upkeep 
of  storehouses,  the  shipment  of  ordnance  supplies,  the  handling 
and  testing  of  explosives,  as  manning  details  for  proof  firing 
of  guns  and  carriages  of  all  types,  and  as  watchmen. 


"At  the  bottom,  this  question  of  preparedness  is  a  question  of  national 
existence.  We  must  decide  whether  we  believe  in  resistance  or  non-resistance 
to  an  invader.  There  is  always  the  possibility  of  an  attack  by  some  foreign 
country." — FBANKLIN  D.  ROOSEVELT,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

THE  Signal  Corps  has  been  presided  over 
by  Brigadier  General  George  P.  Scriven,  S. 
C.,  since  February  4,  1913.  He  is  assisted 
by  1  Colonel,  2  Lieutenant  Colonels,  6 

Guidon  of  Signal  Majors,  18  Captains,  18  First  Lieutenants. 
Corps  Field  Company,  The  enlisted  personnel  consists  of  36  Master 
Signal  Electricians,  132  First  Class  Sergeants,  144  Sergeants,  156 
Corporals,  24  Cooks,  552  Privates,  first  class,  and  168  Privates. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  directs  the  operations  of  the  Aviation 
Section,  the  personnel  of  which  is  constantly  changing  as  more 
officers  are  detailed  to  it. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  is  charged  with  the  construction, 
repair,  and  operation  of  military  cables,  telegraphic  and  tele- 
phonic lines  and  radio  installations,  field  telegraph  trams,  bal- 
loon trains,  and  furnishing  and  installing  instruments  and  con- 
necting cables  used  for  transmitting  information  in  connection 
with  fire  control  at  seacoast  fortifications;  with  the  preparation, 
distribution,  and  revision  of  the  Wax  Department  telegraph  code; 
with  the  supervision  of  instruction  in  military  signaling  and 
telegraphy;  with  the  procurement,  preservation,  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  necessary  supplies  for  the  Signal  Corps  and  for 
signaling  installations  of  the  seacoast  defenses.  He  has  charge 
of  all  military  signal  duties  and  of  books,  papers,  and  devices 
connected  therewith,  including  telegraph  and  telephone  appar- 
atus and  the  necessary  meteorological  instruments  for  target 
ranges  and  other  military  uses;  of  collecting  and  transmitting 

97 


98  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

information  for  the  army  by  telegraph  or  otherwise,  and  all 
other  duties  pertaining  to  military  signaling. 

To  better  prepare  Junior  Signal  Officers  for  their  exacting 
technical  duties,  the  Army  Signal  School  was  organized  at  Fort 
Leaven  worth,  Kansas,  in  1905  as  part  of  The  Army  Service 
Schools.  This  course  of  instruction,  covering  a  period  of  nine 
months,  is  given  to  about  ten  student  officers  each  year.  The 
object  has  been  to  perfect  a  system  of  electrical  field  lines  of 
information  whereby  orders  and  information  could  be  quickly 
transmitted  between  the  larger  units  of  an  Army  in  the  field; 
to  train  officers  in  the  use  of  these  lines,  and  to  make  research 
and  original  investigation  into  all  matters  pertaining  to  military 
signaling  and  to  disseminate  information  thus  obtained. 

The  practical  work  of  this  department  is  conducted  in  a  well- 
equipped  electrical  laboratory  or  workshop.  Each  officer  is 
assigned  a  workbench,  tools,  and  apparatus  and  performs  many 
experiments  in  electrical  testing  and  measurements.  Student 
officers  are  required  to  dismantle,  "take  to  pieces,"  reassemble, 
and  operate  telephones,  buzzers,  dynamos,  switchboards,  oil 
engines,  transformers,  and  many  other  pieces  of  apparatus  in 
order  to  insure  a  thorough  working  knowledge  of  their  construc- 
tion and  repair.  The  course  of  study  is  embraced  in  four 
departments,  as  follows: 

1.  The  Department  of  Field  Signaling. 

2.  The  Department  of  Signal  Engineering. 

3.  The  Department  of  Topography. 

4.  The  Department  of  Languages. 

In  connection  with  the  Signal  School  a  series  of  technical 
conferences  is  held  semi-monthly  for  the  report,  criticism,  and 
discussion  of  papers  pertaining  to  military  field  signaling  and 
signal  engineering  procured  from  current  military  journals  or 
other  available  sources. 

The  functions  of  the  Signal  Corps  in  many  respects  are 
analogous  to  those  of  the  line  of  the  Army  and  require  the  or- 
ganization of  its  enlisted  personnel  with  detachments  which 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  99 

may  readily  operate  with  the  mobile  Army  and  auxiliary 
thereto. 

The  largest  tactical  unit  employed  is  the  battalion  composed 
of  three  Signal  Corps  companies.  It  often  happens  that  an 
individual  signal  man,  most  likely  a  private,  is  completely  de- 
tached from  all  other  units  and  left  in  charge  of  an  important 
telegraph  station.  The  annals  of  the  Signal  Corps  abound  in 
heroic  and  gallant  service  and  fortitude  at  these  isolated 
stations. 

Our  field  army  organization  calls  for  a  Signal  Corps  Battalion 
of  three  companies  and  an  aero  squadron  with  each  division  of 
troops  and  a  Senior  Signal  Officer  on  the  staff  of  the  division 
commander.  This  officer  also  acts  as  censor  at  Headquarters 
and  has  charge  of  the  code  and  cipher  and  the  telegraph  lines. 

The  field  companies  have  separate  though  correlated  duties 
as  follows: 

1.  A  wire  company  of  3  officers  and  75  men  with  sufficient 
insulated  wire  to  keep  Division  Headquarters  constantly  in 
communication  with  each  of  its  three  brigades  operating  to  the 
front. 

2.  An  outpost  company  as  intended  to  be  organized  consists 
of  5  officers  and  75  men  (expert  telegraph  operators)  equipped 
with  light  copper  telegraph  wire  on  breast  reels  and  with  portable 
field  telephone  and  telegraph  sets  (called  a  buzzer)  to  keep  the 
Brigade  Commanders  constantly  in  touch  with  then*  regimental 
commanders.     This  is  indeed  hazardous,  dangerous  duty  calling 
for  indomitable  courage  and  resourcefulness  in  keeping  up  with 
the  fighting  units  yet  taking  no  part  in  the  actual  firing.     Ex- 
perience has  taught  that  the  telegraph  service  is  the  most  reli- 
able method  of  transmitting  information  from  the  firing  line. 
It  is  insensible  to  the  roar  of  battle,  accurate,  and  speedy,  and 
the  human  equation  is  under  better  control  than  with  the  tele- 
phone service. 

3.  A  radio  company  of  3  officers  and  75  men  equipped  with 
four  pack  sections  carried  on  pack  animals  and  two  wheel  radio 


100  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

sets  to  accompany  any  detached  unit  operating  independently 
such  as  the  advanced  cavalry  columns  of  the  punitive  expedi- 
tion now  in  Mexico. 

Division  Headquarters  is  connected  with  the  Army  base  by  a 
semi-permanent  telegraph  line  carried  on  light  poles.  These 
lines  are  hi  charge  of  telegraph  companies  (4  officers  and  139 
men)  equipped  to  handle  a  large  volume  of  messages.  Two  tele- 
graph companies  constitute  a  telegraph  battalion  commanded 
by  a  Major.  During  our  occupation  of  the  Philippines  over 
10,000  miles  of  such  telegraph  lines  have  been  erected  and  turned 
over  to  the  Philippine  government. 

The  Signal  Corps  erected  a  cable  sys- 
tem from  Seattle  to  Alaska  about  twelve 
years  ago  and  with  connecting  telegraph 
lines  takes  care  of  all  of  the  government 
and  commercial  telegraph  service  through- 
Guidon  of  Telegraph  OU*  Alaska" 

Company  Sig-  General   Scriven  assisted  by  his  office 

nal  Corps  force  recently  prepared  under  the  caption 

"The  Service  of  Information  United  States  Army,"  an  educa- 
tional review  of  the  nature,  use,  field  of  service,  and  organization 
of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army,  with  an  outline  of  its  methods 
and  technical  apparatus  and  notes  on  the  service  of  infor- 
mation and  the  organization  of  the  aviation  service  of  the 
leading  foreign  armies.  In  this  volume  of  179  pages 
(which  may  be  had  for  the  asking)  General  Scriven  points 
out  that  although  the  art  of  war  has  not  changed  with  the 
passing  of  years  the  science  of  war  has  changed  enormously 
since  the  days  of  muzzle-loading  guns,  captive  balloons,  and 
messenger  service.  He  also  points  out  that  perhaps  no  changes 
are  as  important  as  those  involving  electricity  and  air  naviga- 
tion since  these  two  functions  permit  the  rapid  dissemination 
of  information  regarding  events  as  they  occur  and  have  replaced 
the  slow  groping  hi  the  dark  of  contending  forces  of  former 
years.  He  points  out  that  it  is  the  use  of  these  two  elements 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  101 

which  his  Corps  is  charged  with  as  an  auxiliary  arm  of  service 
for  the  one  main  purpose — the  speedy  dissemination  of  military 
intelligence.  He  terms  it  the  nerve  system  of  the  Army 
by  which  information  is  transmitted  to  the  brain  of  the 
Army. 

One  of  the  most  vital  elements  of  an  army  is  its  system  of 
communications.  From  newspaper  and  other  accounts  of  the 
European  War  we  read  of  most  admirable  systems  of  communi- 
cation whereby  the  ruler  of  each  country  and  the  War  and 
Navy  Headquarters  hi  the  capitol  of  the  country  are  con- 
stantly in  touch  with  all  parts  of  the  theatre  of  war.  Success  or 
failure  in  battle  often  depends  primarily  upon  the  prompt 
transmission  of  information  and  orders. 

For  sending  messages  short  distances  the  two-arm  semaphore 
code  is  used  with  hand  flags.  This  is  a  very  simple  and  rapid 
method  of  transmitting  orders  and  can  be  readily  learned  by 
any  one.  School  boys  quickly  learn  this  form  of  visual  signal- 
ing with  home-made  flags.  All  that  is  necessary  is  the  code 
and  two  pieces  of  cloth  about  eighteen  inches  square  tacked  to 
sticks.  Boy  Scout  organizations  require  proficiency  in  the  use 
of  this  system  of  signaling. 

For  sending  messages  a  considerable  distance  in  the  day- 
time when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly  the  heliograph  is  used. 
This  consists  of  a  mirror  mounted  on  a  tripod  with  a  shutter 
in  front.  By  raising  and  lowering  the  shutter  quickly  or  slowly 
the  dot  or  dash  is  made.  The  only  limitation  on  the  use  of  the 
heliograph  as  to  distance  is  the  curvature  of  the  earth.  There 
are  instances  where  messages  have  been  sent  from  one  mountain 
to  another  at  a  distance  of  over  one  hundred  miles.  At  night- 
time the  signal  lantern  is  used.  The  signal  lantern  has  been 
used  successfully  for  signaling  at  a  distance  of  twenty-eight 
miles.  For  visual  signaling  as  well  as  with  the  telegraph  and 
cable  lines,  the  International  Morse  or  General  Service  Code  is 
used  in  both  Army  and  Navy. 

Although  in  1907—8  the  basic  patents  of  the  Wright  Brothers 


CRROR 


Y     ii 


ANNULLING 


8 


INTEHKOGATORY 


u 


AFFIFWATIVE 


FT 
P 


V 


INTERVAL 


El    A    5 


K 


w 


PREPARATORY 


ACKNOWLEDGE. 


F     &    6 


KT 

R 


Two-Arm  Semaphore  Code  with  Hand  Fkgs 


102 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  103 

and  their  generosity  and  patriotism  gave  the  United  States  a 
clear  lead  in  aviation,  Congress  has  been  slow  in  appropriating 
adequately  for  its  military  development.  European  countries 
and  Japan  were  all  very  quick  to  realize  the  military-naval  po- 
tentialities of  the  aeroplane  as  a  war  utility.  Following  a  suc- 
cessful test  of  a  Wright  Brothers'  biplane  in  1909  with  Captain 
Benjamin  D.  Foulois,  S.  C.,  as  a  passenger,  and  who  is 
now  Dean  of  American  aviators,  this  aeroplane  was  pur- 
chased by  the  War  Department  for  $25,000.  A  tempo- 
rary aviation  school  was  then  established  at  College  Park,  Md., 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Wright  Brothers,  the  first  class 
consisting  of  three  officers.  In  1910  the  Wright  biplane  and  a 
Curtis  biplane  were  sent  to  San  Antonio,  Texas,  and  used  con- 
stantly hi  training  aviators  until  1911.  Augusta,  Ga.,  was  also 
tried  out  as  a  winter  school  site.  In  1912,  San  Diego,  Calif., 
was  selected  as  a  most  suitable  location  for  an  aviation  school 
for  the  proper  instruction  and  training  of  officers  and  enlisted 
men  for  the  Aviation  Corps.  This  training  is  both  practical 
and  theoretical.  A  motor  is  studied  by  taking  it  completely 
apart  and  reassembling,  after  thorough  study  and  overhauling. 
Extensive  practical  work  and  instruction  in  locating  engine 
faults  is  required.  The  instructor  purposely  disables  a  motor 
in  every  conceivable  manner,  and  then  requires  the  students  to 
locate  and  remedy  the  faults.  Aeroplanes  are  dissembled  and 
assembled  over  and  over  again.  Shop  work  in  making  metal 
fittings  and  instruction  in  metallurgy  is  sufficiently  thorough 
to  make  each  aviator  an  expert  in  these  lines.  The  course  in 
meteorology  and  navigation  of  the  air  affords  a  good  working 
knowledge  of  these  subjects. 

The  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps  was  established  by 
Act  of  Congress,  July  18,  1914.  As  now  authorized  its  ultimate 
strength  will  be  114  officers  selected  from  the  line  of  the  Army 
from  unmarried  officers  under  thirty  years  of  age,  and  820  en- 
listed men. 

Enlisted  men  are  given  practical  training  and  shop  work  to 


104  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

qualify  them  as  aviation  mechanicians.     When  qualified  they 

receive  fifty  per  cent,  increase  in  pay. 

The  aviators  begin  their  instruction  by 
going  up  with  an  instructor  in  a  hydro- 
aeroplane. When  accustomed  to  the  feel 
of  the  air,  he  is  taught  the  use  of  the  con- 
trols for  straightaway  flying;  then  to  turn, 

Guidon  of  Aero  Squad-   bank,  climb,  and  glide  his  machine.     When 
ron  Signal  Corps        proficient    ^    aU  that    he  ig  put  m  a  j^ 

machine  and  learns  to  rise  from  and  alight  on  ground  of  vary- 
ing conditions.  Then  cross-country  flying.  When  proficiency 
in  the  use  of  navigating  and  recording  instruments  and  indicators 
has  been  attained  he  is  examined  for  rating  as  junior  aviator. 

The  tactical  unit  of  organization  is  the  aero  squadron  which 
carries  an  increase  in  grade  and  fifty  per  cent,  increase  in  pay. 
Upon  qualifying  as  military  aviator  another  increase  in  grade 
is  authorized  and  seventy-five  per  cent,  increase  in  pay  of  that 
grade. 

The  last  Congress  (1916)  appropriated  $13,281,666  for  Army 
Aeronautics. 

The  first  unit  to  be  turned  out  by  the  San  Diego  school  was 
the  1st  Aero  Squadron  (2  companies,  8  machines,  etc.)  sent  to 
Fort  Sill  to  cooperate  with  the  field  artillery,  December,  1915. 
One  company  of  the  squadron  was  later  dispatched  to  Browns- 
ville, Texas,  for  scout  duty  on  the  border,  and  the  entire  squadron 
now  has  station  at  Fort  Sam  Houston,  Texas.  It  went  into 
Mexico  with  the  Punitive  Expedition  in  March,  1916.  A 
company  has  been  sent  to  Manila;  and  another  one  will  be 
organized  for  the  Canal  Zone,  and  a  third  for  Hawaii. 

The  Aero  Squadron  to  be  attached  to  a  division  consists  of 
three  companies  commanded  by  a  field  officer.  Each  company 
consists  of  6  officers  and  39  enlisted  men,  4  aeroplanes,  several 
reserve  machines,  spare  parts,  etc. 

Air  craft  are  now  employed  for  strategical  and  tactical 
reconnaissance,  and  the  prevention  of  reconnaissance  by  the 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  105 

enemy  air  craft;  for  the  direction  and  control  of  the  fire  of  the 
artillery;  for  the  destruction  of  the  enemy's  personnel  and 
material  by  explosive  and  incendiary  missiles,  darts,  bombs, 
etc.;  and  for  the  rapid  transportation  of  superior  commanding 
officers  and  dispatches. 

Oversea  companies  are  equipped  with  hydroaeroplanes. 
As  soon  as  funds  permit  it  is  proposed  to  equip  a  squadron  with 
twelve  machines  in  activity,  twelve  replacement  machines,  and 
twelve  hi  reserve,  with  the  needed  complement  of  officers,  men, 
and  auxiliary  equipment. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  officers  of  the  Aviation  Sec- 
tion of  the  Signal  Corps,  despite  the  handicaps  they  labor  under, 
during  the  fiscal  year  1915  established  one  world's  record  and 
three  American  records  for  altitude  or  duration  of  flight.  Alto- 
gether the  Aviation  Section  made  3,458  flights  of  a  total  dura- 
tion of  1,269  hours  and  50  minutes,  while  1,730  passengers  were 
carried.  The  records  are  as  follows : 

September  26,  1911,  Lieutenant  T.  DeW.  Milling  made  a 
world's  duration  record  for  pilot  and  two  passengers.  Time  1 
hour,  54  minutes.,  42  3-5  seconds. 

March  28,  1913,  Lieutenant  Milling  made  American  record 
cross-country  flight,  pilot  and  1  passenger,  220  miles. 

The  flight  of  March  28,  1913,  was  also  an  American  record  for 
endurance  of  pilot  and  1  passenger.  Time  4  hours.,  22  minutes. 

October  8,  1914,  Capt.  H.  LeR.  Muller,  S.  C.  established  a 
new  American  altitude  record  for  pilot  flying  alone  by  reach- 
ing an  altitude  of  17,441  feet.  Duration  of  flight,  2  hours,  27 
minutes. 

January  5,  1915,  First  Lieut.  J.  E.  Carberry,  S.  C.  pilot  and 
Second  Lieut.  Arthur  R.  Christie  22nd.  Inf.,  passenger,  es- 
tablished a  new  American  altitude  record  for  pilot  and  pas- 
senger by  reaching  an  altitude  of  11,690  feet.  Duration  of 
flight,  1  hour  and  13  minutes. 

January  15,  1915,  First  Lieut.  B.  Q.  Jones,  S.  C.  esta- 
blished a  new  American  endurance  record  by  making  a  flight 


106  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  8  hours,  53  minutes,  the  flight  lasting  from  7:52  A.  M.  to 
4 :45  P.  M. 

February  20,  1915,  Corporal  Smith,  attached  to  the  United 
States  Signal  Corps  Aviation  School  at  North  Island,  established 
what  is  declared  to  be  a  record  endurance  flight  for  hydro- 
aeroplanes. He  remained  in  the  air  8  hours  and  42  minutes. 

March  12,  1915,  First  Lieut.  B.  Q.  Jones,  S.  C.,  Corporals 
Hale  and  Houser,  S.  C.,  as  passengers,  established  a  new 
world's  endurance  record  for  pilot  and  two  passengers  by 
making  a  flight  of  7  hours  and  5  minutes,  the  flight  lasting 
from  10:02  A.  M.  to  5 :07  P.  M. 

September  17,  1915,  Lieut.  W.  R.  Taliaferro  made  an  Ameri- 
can record  for  pilot  alone.  Time,  9  hours,  48  minutes. 

The  Aero  Squadron  in  command  of  Capt.  Benjamin  D.  Foulois 
operating  with  the  punitive  expedition  in  Mexico  rendered 
most  valuable  and  gallant  service  under  great  handicaps. 

One  of  the  most  serious  technical  problems  that  confronts 
the  aviation  service  is  the  development  of  a  reliable  motor. 
Up  to  the  present  no  American-built  motors  have  proved  en- 
tirely reliable  for  air  service. 

The  present  war  in  Europe  has  developed  three  separate 
types  of  aeroplanes — the  reconnaissance  and  fire-control  ma- 
chine, the  combat  machine,  and  the  pursuit  machine. 

The  organization  of  the  aviation  units  in  the  foreign  armies 
comprises  a  squadron  of  12  machines  as  the  basis  for  organiza- 
tion, 8  of  these  machines  to  be  of  the  reconnaissance  type  and 
2  each  of  the  pursuit  and  combat  types. 

The  life  of  an  aeroplane  is  about  one  year,  and  the  annual 
upkeep  about  four  or  five  thousand  dollars.  The  War  Depart- 
ment has  owned  seventy-five  machines  (aeroplanes  and  hydros). 
The  total  number  of  flights  from  January  1,  1916,  to  May  20, 
1916,  was  2,975,  with  a  total  time  in  the  air  of  1,399  hours,  27 
minutes.  There  are  about  350  licensed  civilian  aeroplane  fliers 
in  the  United  States. 

The  governors  of  the  Aero  Club  of  America  are  attempting 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  107 

to  secure  money  by  public  subscription  to  supply  additional 
aeroplanes.  The  movement  has  the  approval  of  the  militia 
commanders  of  many  states.  Germany  raised  $1,800,000  and 
France  $1,220,000  by  public  subscription  in  1912.  Germany 
used  these  funds  to  train  aviation  pilots  and  encourage  the  gen- 
eral development  of  aviation.  A  subsidy  of  $2,000  for  each 
pilot  trained  and  machine  furnished  resulted  in  an  increase  from 
230  pilots  at  the  end  of  1912  to  600  a  year  later,  and  an  increase 
from  20  to  50  aeroplane  constructors.  The  French  used  their 
funds  to  purchase  aeroplanes,  a  total  of  209  being  purchased. 

In  the  Field  Machine  Shop  of  the  First  Aero  Squadron  all  of 
its  tools  are  motor  driven.  The  dynamo  obtains  its  energy 
from  the  forward  wheel  and  furnishes  the  electric  power  to  drive 
the  tools.  The  machinery  may  be  removed  and  placed  on  the 
ground  or  in  the  house  or  under  canvas — anywhere  alongside 
of  the  road  where  it  is  necessary  to  establish  the  repair  plant. 
When  it  was  proposed  to  construct  this  moving  machine  shop 
proposals  were  obtained  from  various  manufactures,  and  the 
price  asked  for  the  complete  outfit  was  $15,000.  The  Signal 
Corps  was  able  to  do  the  work  and  obtain  the  vehicle  as  ready 
for  service  by  utilizing  its  own  labor  and  purchasing  the  material 
for  $4,800. 

A  notable  achievement  of  the  Army  Aviation  Corps  was  the 
transfer  of  the  first  aero  squadron  from  its  station  at  Fort 
Sill,  Okla.,  to  Fort  Sam  Houston,  Texas,  under  the  command  of 
Captain  B.  D.  Foulois.  He  is  our  most  experienced  aviator, 
having  made  a  total  of  about  1,200  flights.  The  incident 
furnished  the  first  occasion  of  the  movement  of  such  an  organ- 
ization intact  by  the  use  of  its  own  facilities  for  transportation, 
over  a  distance  of  some  500  miles.  The  six  reconnaissance 
tractor  aeroplanes  of  the  squadron  stopped  over  night  at 
Wichita  Falls,  Fort  Worth,  Waco,  and  Austin,  the  length  of  the 
daily  journeys  being  limited  by  the  distance  that  could  be  made 
in  a  day  by  the  land  vehicles  over  the  unsatisfactory  roads. 
The  land  transportation  consisted  of  eight  motor  trucks,  two 


108  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

trailers,  and  one  passenger  car,  which  carried  the  enlisted  per- 
sonnel, repair  supplies,  camp  equipage,  subsistence,  etc. 

The  only  delay  was  during  two  days  owing  to  unfavorable 
weather  conditions,  over  which  the  aviators,  of  course,  had 
no  control.  This  squadron  took  station  at  Fort  Sam  Houston 
where  quarters  for  fourteen  officers,  barracks,  hangars  for  ten 
aeroplanes,  administration  building,  storehouse,  and  shops  have 
been  provided.] 

A    FEW    FOREIGN    NEWS    ITEMS    INDICATIVE    OF    THE    DEVELOP- 
MENT   OF    AERONAUTICS    ABROAD 

German  aeroplanes  dropped  bombs  from  a  great  height,  in 
one  case  of  9,000  feet,  on  Lillers,  St.  Omar,  and  Estaires.  No 
military  damage  was  done.  A  Zeppelin  raid  on  Paris  (four 
airships)  came  to  naught.  Two  ships  were  driven  off  before 
reaching  Paris,  the  other  two  attacked  by  aircraft  guns  did  no 
more  than  pass  over  the  outlying  districts  of  the  northwest  of  the 
city.  Bombs  were  dropped  on  the  station,  Conflans-Jarny  and 
the  adjoining  railway  lines. 

The  effect  of  the  British  artillery  at  Neuve  Chapelle  was  due 
in  no  small  measure  to  the  air  service.  Owing  to  the  misty 
weather  prevailing,  aviators  were  compelled  to  descend  as  low 
as  800  feet  above  the  hostile  batteries. 

Zeppelin  L-5  is  announced  to  have  overhauled  the  Dutch  ship 
Helena  at  sea  on  February  16th.  The  bombs  dropped  on  Calais, 
February  15th,  suggest  a  powerful  explosive,  one  of  the  craters 
made  being  18  feet  in  diameter.  The  cardinal  weakness  of  the 
Zeppelin  lies  in  its  inability  to  operate  in  daylight  through  fear  of 
hostile  aeroplanes;  by  night,  seeing  is  difficult. 

Aeroplanes  flying  over  the  German  lines  in  the  La  Bassee 
district  succeeded  in  locating  six  batteries,  which  in  a  few  min- 
utes were  shelled  by  the  French  artillery. 

Russian  aviators  assisted  the  retreat  of  a  division  by  contin- 
ued dropping  of  letters  containing  valuable  information;  and 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  109 

when  ammunition  began  to  fail,  brought  up  considerable  quan- 
tities from  the  distant  rear.  The  boxes  were  wrapped  in  rags 
and  dropped  within  reach  of  the  troops.  A  Zeppelin  on  patrol 
duty  over  Cologne,  protecting  the  military  bridges  of  the  Rhine, 
is  reported  as  blown  down  by  a  storm  and  damaged  beyond 
repair. 

The  value  of  the  air  service  in  the  Neuve  Chapelle  fight  is 
confirmed:  "Not  a  gun  was  laid,  not  a  body  of  troops  moved 
without  being  detected"  by  airmen. 

Communication  between  Przemysl  and  the  Austrian  lines 
seems  to  have  been  maintained  almost  daily  by  means  of  avia- 
tors, who  would  take  out  letters  and  bring  back  stores.  One  of 
them  was  able  to  carry  as  much  as  4  cwt.  in  his  machine. 

An  aerial  battle  in  which  twenty  aeroplanes  were  engaged  on 
both  sides  took  place  March  21, 1915,  between  Lorrach  and  Mul- 
hausen.  The  French  came  from  the  Vosges  and  the  Germans 
from  the  Black  Forest.  German  forts  and  batteries  opened  on 
the  advancing  French  squadron. 

From  a  statement  by  Baron  D'Arcy,  the  French  use  three 
classes  of  aeroplanes :  destroyers,  artillery  spotter,  and  scout. 
The  destroyers  are  pushers,  have  a  gun  in  front,  carry  bombs 
and  wireless  apparatus,  fly  at  2,000  meters,  and  need  not  armor. 
The  artillery  spotters  fly  at  1,000  meters  in  observation,  and  are 
armored  against  rule  bullets.  They  also  carry  wireless.  To 
enable  them  to  fly  slowly  and  climb  quickly  variable  speed  is 
being  developed.  The  scouts  used  on  reconnaissance,  and  as 
messengers,  are  about  eighty-mile  machines,  operated  by  one 
man  armed  with  rifle  or  revolver.  Higher  speed  offers  difficulty 
in  landing.  A  few  higher  speed  machines  are  in  use  principally 
near  Paris. 


"We  must  heed  the  lessons  of  this  European  War  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
in  this  country  government  of  the  people  by  the  people  and  for  the  people  shall 
not  perish." — ALTON  B.  PARKER. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS 

THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  AND   PORTO  RICO 

THE  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  presided  over  by  Brigadier 
General  Frank  Mclntyre,  United  States  Army,  Chief  of  Bureau, 
was  established  by  Act  of  Congress,  July  1,  1902,  to  take  charge 
of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  Civil  Government  in  the  island 
possessions  of  the  United  States  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  War  Department.  At  the  present  time  this  includes  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  Porto  Rico,  which  came  into  possession 
of  the  United  States  as  a  result  of  the  Spanish  American  War. 
Similar  functions  are  exercised  by  the  Navy  Department  over 
the  islands  of  Guam  and  Tutuila. 

This  bureau  is  the  depository  of  the  civil  records  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  occupation  of  Cuba  (January  1,  1899,  to  May  20, 
1902)  and  of  the  Expedition  to  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  in  1914. 
During  the  period  of  provisional  government  in  Cuba  by  the 
United  States  (September  29, 1906,  to  January  28,  1909)  it  had 
certain  functions  to  perform  in  connection  therewith. 

Under  the  convention  entered  into  between  the  United  States 
and  Santo  Domingo,  February  8,  1907,  the  Bureau  exercises 
immediate  supervision  and  control  of  the  customs  receivership 
of  that  republic.  This  arrangement  illustrates  a  practical 
application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  in  safeguarding  both  the  interest  of  Europeans  in  this 
Western  Hemisphere  republic,  and  the  interests  of  that  repub- 
lic itself.  This  Bureau  is  a  clearing  house  in  the  United  States 
for  the  Philippine  and  Porto  Rican  governments.  The  fiscal 

110 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  111 

transactions  aggregate  fifteen  millions  annually.  It  attends  to 
the  purchase  and  shipment  of  supplies  for  these  governments  and 
to  the  appointment  in  the  United  States  of  Americans  to  posi- 
tions under  the  Philippine  Government.  It  gathers  statistical 
data  of  insular  imports,  exports,  shipping,  and  immigration. 

The  following  items  compiled  from  the  annual  report  of  Gen- 
eral Mclntyre  for  1915  and  from  a  special  report  on  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  in  1913,  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  beneficent 
civil  government  established  and  of  some  of  its  results  affecting 
the  health,  education,  welfare,  and  prosperity  of  the  Filipinos 
and  Porto  Ricans  under  American  rule. 

The  total  value  of  imports  in  1915  for  the  Philippine  Islands 
was  $48,588,653,  the  exports  $48,689,634.  The  principal  staple 
articles  exported  are  sugar,  hemp,  copra  (dried  cocoanut  meat), 
and  cigars,  about  one-half  of  which  came  to  United  States. 
The  present  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  Philippine  Government 
is  $16,125,000.  The  currency  used  is  silver  com  and  certifi- 
cates. 

The  Filipino  to-day  controls  absolutely  his  municipal  govern- 
ment which  means,  from  the  American  standpoint,  the  mu- 
nicipal and  county  governments. 

In  the  provinces,  which  correspond  to  the  states  of  the  Union, 
the  governing  body  is  a  board,  two  members  of  which  are  elected 
by  the  voters  of  the  province,  and  the  third  appointed  by  the 
Governor  General.  The  provincial  treasurer  is  a  civil  service 
official  and  has  been  generally  an  American,  though  a  number 
of  provinces  have  had  Filipino  treasurers. 

In  the  insular  or  central  government  the  executive  officers 
are  appointed,  the  Philippine  Commission  consisting  of  nine 
members  being  appointed  by  the  President.  Four  of  the  mem- 
bers are  the  heads  of  executive  departments  of  the  Government 
and  five  are  members  of  the  Commission  in  its  legislative  capac- 
ity. This  body  is  the  upper  house  of  the  Legislature.  For- 
merly five  members  of  this  body  were  Americans  and  four  Fili- 
pinos. For  several  years  one  of  the  executive  departments — 


112";  _          MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

that  of  Finance  and  Justice — has  been  presided  over  by  a  Fili- 
pino, while  one  of  the  legislative  members  has  been  an  American. 

A  Filipino  has  been  the  Attorney  General  of  the  Islands  for 
several  years. 

In  the  legislature  the  lower  house,  the  Philippine  Assembly, 
is  composed  of  81  members  elected  from  the  Christian  and  civi- 
lized portion  of  the  Archipelago.  The  jurisdiction  of  this  legis- 
lature is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  state  legislatures. 

All  acts  of  the  Legislature  are  reported  to  Congress,  which 
has  never  exercised  the  reserved  power  and  right  to  annul  the 
same. 

APPOINTMENT  OF  A   CIVIL  GOVERNOR 

In  1901  conditions  justified  an  extension  of  civil  government, 
and  President  McKinley  issued  an  order  July  4,  1901,  transfer- 
ring from  the  Military  Governor  to  the  President  of  the  Philip- 
pine Commission  the  powers  of  the  executive  branch  of  govern- 
ment in  all  the  pacified  provinces  of  the  Islands.  Hon.  William 
H.  Taft  was  the  first  Civil  Governor. 


SCOPE   OF  AUTHORITY   GRANTED  THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

The  government  of  the  Philippine  Islands  was  authorized  by 
Congress  to  exercise  certain  powers  of  sovereignty  which  there- 
tofore in  our  history  has  been  exercised  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment exclusively.  Rights  and  privileges  were  conferred  upon 
the  Philippines  which  never  before  had  been  given  to  any  politi- 
cal entity  subordinate  to  Congress.  Congress  also  conveyed  to 
the  insular  government  the  administration  of  all  the  public 
property  in  the  archipelago  which  had  passed  from  the  Crown  of 
Spain  to  the  United  States,  except  such  land  or  other  property 
as  shall  be  designated  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  for 
military  and  other  reservations  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States. 

No  other  portion  of  the  territory  subject  to  the  sovereignty 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  113 

of  the  United  States  is  to-day  exercising  by  and  for  itself  so  many 
of  the  powers  of  sovereignty  as  is  the  Philippine  Archipelago. 
No  other  portion  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  maintains 
at  its  own  expense  its  own  agencies  for  the  performance  of  many 
functions  performed  elsewhere  at  federal  expense,  such  as  light- 
house service,  separate  postal,  customs,  and  internal  revenue 
services.  No  official  of  the  government  of  the  Philippines,  not 
even  a  judge,  receives  his  salary  from  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury, with  the  single  exception  of  the  two  Filipino  Commissioners 
at  Washington. 

CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT 

Outline  of  the  Present  Organization 

The  present  Governor  General  is  the  Hon.  Francis  Burton 
Harrison  of  New  York,  who  is  assisted  by  the  secretaries  of  the 
four  executive  departments : 

Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Winfred  T.  Denison,  New  York. 

Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police,  Eugene  E.  Reed,  New 
Hampshire. 

Secretary  of  Finance  and  Justice,  Victorino  Mapa,  P.  I. 

Secretary  of  Public  Instruction,  Henderson  S.  Martin,  Kansas. 

The  city  of  Manila  is  organized  separately  under  a  board 
which  reports  to  the  Governor  General. 

Resident  Commissioners 

The  two  resident  commissioners  to  the  United  States,  elected 
for  terms  of  four  years,  and  entitled  to  a  seat  but  not  a  vote  in 
the  House  of  Representatives,  are  Manuel  L.  Quezon  and 
Manuel  Earnshaw. 

Judiciary 

The  judiciary  embraces  the  Supreme  Court,  three  of  the  seven 
members  being  Filipinos;  the  courts  of  first  instance  and  the 


114  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

justices  of  the  peace  courts.     There  are  26  districts  and  36 
judges  of  first  instance,  22  of  these  being  Filipinos. 

Both  the  organized  municipalities  and  the  newer  settlements 
and  townships  have  their  justices  of  the  peace  appointed  by  the 
Governor  General  from  nominations  made  by  the  judges  of  first 
instance  of  the  district. 

Administrative  Cooperation 

Owing  to  the  diversity  of  tribes  and  languages,  as  well  as  to  the 
varying  degree  of  development  among  those  even  in  neighboring 
communities,  it  was  impossible  to  depend  upon  the  initiative  of 
the  people  of  the  municipalities  and  provinces  to  make  as  rapid 
advancement  in  education,  in  sanitation,  and  in  many  other 
forms  of  public  service  as  was  demanded  by  their  condition. 
It  consequently  was  essential  to  associate  with  the  fullest  local 
liberty  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the  various  agencies  of  the 
central  government.  The  general  lack  of  taxable  wealth  made 
it  necessary  to  reinforce  the  local  revenue  by  some  form  of  aid 
from  the  central  government. 

This  cooperation  has  brought  marked  advances.  The  local 
schools  are  under  the  supervision  of  insular  teachers,  the  sanitary 
work  is  inspected  and  directed  by  experts,  and  there  is  combined 
effort  under  competent  technical  supervision  as  to  public  works. 

The  government  of  the  city  of  Manila  is  vested  in  a  municipal 
board  which  administers  an  area  of  14,905  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  some  267,000  people. 

Under  the  American  government  there  have  been  added  41 
miles  of  streets  and  28  bridges;  bituminous,  macadam,  and 
wood  block  paving  have  been  placed  on  the  principal  streets. 
The  area  of  streets  sprinkled  daily  is  1,142,400  square  yards, 
and  nearly  double  that  area  of  street  surface  is  cleaned  daily. 
The  area  of  city  parks  and  public  grounds  cared  for  has  doubled 
since  1905,  being  about  300  acres,  and  preliminary  work  is  being 
done  on  some  600  additional  acres.  Eight  public  markets  yield 
the  city  an  annual  revenue  of  some  $150,000. 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  115 

The  police  force  consists  of  682  men,  a  reduction  of  259  from 
the  maximum  strength  in  1902. 

The  improvement  of  the  port  and  water  front  has  been  of 
marked  aid  to  commerce,  while  the  installation  of  adequate 
water  and  sewer  systems,  new  street  car  line,  etc.,  has  made 
the  city  much  more  modern  and  attractive  as  a  place  of  resi- 
dence, while  there  has  also  been  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants. 

MANILA   WATER   SUPPLY   AND   SEWERAGE   SYSTEM 

The  installation  of  a  water  system  was  originally  begun  in 
1878  and  completed  in  1882.  Before  the  introduction  of  this 
system  the  water  supply  of  the  entire  city  was  derived  from  shal- 
low wells  and  the  Pasig  River. 

Upon  American  occupation  the  supply  was  found  to  be  insuf- 
ficient, badly  contaminated,  and  a  constant  menace  to  the  public 
health,  while  there  was  practically  no  sewerage  system.  Plans, 
surveys,  and  complete  study  of  a  new  water  system  were  finished 
in  the  fiscal  year  1903,  and  a  year  later  those  for  a  sewerage  sys- 
tem for  a  population  of  about  440,000.  Under  the  organic  law 
the  Philippine  Commission  authorized  a  bond  issue  of  $4,000,000 
to  cover  the  installation  of  the  two  systems.  The  new  water 
system  was  practically  completed  in  1908.  These  improvements 
were  followed  by  a  remarkable  betterment  in  health  conditions. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior 

This  department  includes  the  bureaus  of  health,  science, 
lands,  forestry,  and  weather.  In  addition,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  has  general  supervision  of  the  work  among  the 
non-Christian  tribes. 

The  Bureau  of  Health 

This  bureau,  founded  by  medical  officers  of  the  United  States 
Army,  is  the  medical  department  of  the  insular  government, 


116  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

its  services  being  available  to  and  extensively  used  in  the  prov- 
inces and  municipalities.  It  has  charge  of  the  collection  of  vital 
statistics  and  the  protection  of  the  public  from  dangerous  com- 
municable diseases  by  practical  educational  methods,  the  ad- 
ministration of  public  charities,  care  of  the  insane,  of  orphans, 
aged,  the  supervision  of  factory  conditions,  and  the  hygienic 
and  medical  care  of  all  government  employees.  The  fullest 
possible  efforts  have  been  made  to  bring  the  daily  benefits  of 
modern  sanitation  within  reach  of  all  willing  to  receive 
them.  The  results  attained  are  immeasurable  and  place  the 
sanitary  and  health  work  in  the  Philippines,  with  similar 
work  in  Cuba  and  Panama,  at  the  head  of  American  accomplish- 
ments. 

Outside  of  a  few  principal  cities  there  was  practically  nothing 
known  in  the  Philippines  of  hospitals  or  physicians. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  impediments  to  sanitary  progress, 
due  to  the  conditions  following  the  war  and  insurrection,  there 
was  to  be  overcome  a  conservatism  of  backward  peoples  op- 
posing in  their  ignorance  and  superstition  every  effort  toward 
modern  sanitation. 


Smallpox  and  Vaccination 

In  the  first  two  months  that  Americans  had  charge  of  the 
work  of  sanitation  more  people  were  vaccinated  in  Manila  than 
in  the  preceding  ten  years.  In  1907  the  director  of  health  re- 
ported that  in  seven  provinces  where  theretofore  there  had  been 
approximately  6,000  deaths  annually  from  smallpox,  not  a 
single  death  from  this  disease  had  been  reported  during  the  year. 
More  than  2,000,000  vaccinations  were  performed  in  a  single 
year.  A  total  of  over  10,000,000  has  been  reached  and  the  an- 
nual mortality  from  smallpox,  which  prior  to  American  occupa- 
tion averaged  40,000  cases  a  year,  has  been  reduced  to  a  few 
hundred. 


Field  company  Signal  Corps  on  the  march 


Semaphoring 


Wigwagging 


Signal  Corps  Class  in  telegraphy 


Infantryman  in  heavy  marching  order 


The  new  Infantry  equipment  in  detail 

It  comprises  a  collapsible  frying  pan.  plate,  knife,  fork,  spoon,  water  bottle,  first- 
aid  kit,  cup,  emergency  rations,  intrenching  tool,  bayonet,  half  a  tent,  blankets,  and 
ninety  cartridges 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  117 

Bubonic  Plague 

Manila  was  one  of  the  worst  plague  spots  in  the  East,  and  the 
average  rate  of  mortality  among  the  natives  and  the  foreign 
residents  was  appalling. 

Since  1903  the  bureau  of  health  has  been  striving  to  eradicate 
plague  through  the  isolation  of  all  persons  suffering  from  the 
disease  and  the  destruction  of  plague-infected  rats. 

The  campaign  against  the  disease  is  conducted  on  the  theory 
of  the  Indian  Plague  Commission  that  bubonic  plague  comes 
from  the  plague-infected  rats  by  means  of  rat  fleas,  and  the 
measures  of  protection  are  directed  chiefly  against  the  rat. 


Hospitals 

The  most  modern  hospital  hi  the  Orient  was  opened  in  Manila 
during  the  visit  of  the  Secretary  of  War  in  1910.  This  is  the 
Philippine  General  Hospital,  with  a  training  school  for  Filipino 
nurses  and  a  clinical  hospital  for  the  Philippine  Medical  School. 
The  beneficent  work  for  the  poor  is  already  exerting  a  far- 
reaching  influence  in  convincing  the  people  that  a  hospital  is  a 
place  in  which  to  get  well  rather  than  one  hi  which  to  die. 


Bureau  of  Forestry 

The  bureau  of  forestry  administers  the  forests  on  public 
lands. 

The  virgin  forests  are  estimated  to  contain  about  £,400,000,000 
board  feet,  while  the  present  commercial  use,  other  than  fire- 
wood, is  estimated  at  less  than  a  hundred  million  feet  a  year. 

The  forests  contain  over  600  varieties  of  hardwoods,  many  of 
them  suitable  for  the  choicest  cabinetwork. 

A  forestry  school  is  maintained  in  connection  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  Philippines. 


118  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Constabulary 

The  Philippine  Constabulary  is  the  armed  police  force  of  the 
government  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  consists  of  325  officers 
and  4,000  men. 

A  Common  Language 

At  least  3,000,000  children  have  had  instruction  in  English. 
For  many  years  English  has  been  the  official  language  in  all 
branches  of  the  government  except  the  courts.  The  business 
of  the  government,  however,  has  been  very  largely  conducted 
in  Spanish  and  in  the  various  dialects.  The  aim,  of  course,  is 
not  to  impose  a  burden  upon  any,  but  rather  to  encourage  the 
use  of  English. 

Public  School  System 

Upon  return  of  his  regiment  from  the  Philippines  in  1901  the 
author  remained,  being  detailed  by  the  Governor  General  as  the 
first  Division  Superintendent  of  Schools  under  the  Civil  Govern- 
ment. It  was  his  privilege  and  pleasure  to  appoint  the  first 
school  boards  and  corps  of  Filipino  teachers  in  many  towns  and 
to  assist  the  General  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Dr. 
Fred  W.  Atkinson,  pending  the  arrival  of  Division  Superinten- 
dents appointed  in  the  United  States. 

This  was  a  most  fascinating  experience  and  created  keen  inter- 
est in  the  ultimate  results  of  American  influence,  assistance,  and 
protection  extended  to  the  Philippines  and  the  Filipino  people. 

All  public  schools  of  the  Philippines,  except  those  of  the  Moro 
Province,  are  under  the  bureau  of  education.  There  are  about 
539  American  teachers,  1,291  Insular  Filipino  teachers,  and 
about  8,014  Filipino  municipal  teachers  employed  in  the  service. 

The  work  includes  the  organization  and  conduct  of: 

1.  Primary  schools,  which  offer  a  four-year  course,  providing 
instruction  in  English,  simple  arithmetic,  geography,  and  at  least 
the  rudiments  of  some  useful  occupation. 

2.  Intermediate  schools,  which  give  three  years'  additional 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  119 

instruction,  and  which  throughout  the  course  lay  great  emphasis 
upon  vocational  training,  including  a  general  course,  a  course 
as  a  preparation  for  teaching  primary  grades,  a  course  in  farming, 
a  course  in  housekeeping  and  household  arts,  a  trade  course,  and 
a  course  for  business. 

3.  High  schools,  offering  a  regular  secondary  course  of  four 
years,  modified  in  outline  in  certain  special  schools  to  conform 
to  the  aims  of  such  institutions  as  the  Philippine  Normal  School, 
the  Philippine  School  of  Commerce,  and  the  Philippine  School 
of  Arts  and  Trades. 

All  instruction  is  given  in  the  English  language. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  is  devoting  itself  to  the  problem  of 
formulating  and  putting  into  operation  a  program  of  industrial 
instruction  which  will  be  at  once  logical  in  its  sequence  from 
grade  to  grade  and  in  close  harmony  with  the  industrial  needs 
of  the  community  and  which  will  prepare  boys  and  girls  in  a 
practical  way  for  industrial,  commercial,  and  domestic  activities. 

Nineteen  trade  schools  are  maintained  in  various  provinces; 
manual-training  classes  are  conducted  in  all  provincial  schools, 
and  in  practically  all  intermediate  and  primary  schools.  These 
schools  manufactured  during  the  school  year  products  to  the 
value  of  $196,548.27.  There  are  over  3,000  school  gardens  and 
nearly  25,000  home  gardens  supervised  by  school  authorities. 
Five  school  farms  are  operated. 

The  University  of  the  Philippines 

The  University  of  the  Philippines  was  founded  in  1904  to 
provide  advanced  instruction  in  literature,  philosophy,  science, 
and  arts,  and  to  give  professional  and  technical  training. 

Bureau  of  Printing 

The  bureau  of  printing  furnishes  all  printing  and  binding  for 
the  government  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

In  1907  the  management  and  control  of  the  insular  ice  plant 


120  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

was  turned  over  to  the  bureau  of  supplies.  This  plant  cost  the 
Government  over  $1,000,000,  and  was  built  originally  to  supply 
the  army  of  occupation.  It  now  furnishes  ice,  distilled  water 
and  cold  storage  for  the  Army,  the  Navy,  and  the  insular 
government,  as  well  as  the  general  public. 

PORTO  RICO 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  ratified  April  11, 1899, 
Spain  relinquished  jurisdiction  and  ownership  over  the  Island 
of  Porto  Rico  and  it  became  a  possession  of  the  United  States. 
Civil  government  was  established  May  1,  1900,  under  the  Act 
of  Congress  approved  April  12, 1900. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Governor,  appointed  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  who  has  practically  the  same 
duties  as  the  governors  of  other  territories  of  the  United  States. 
The  present  Governor  is  Hon.  Arthur  Yager,  of  Kentucky. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
consisting  of  the  Executive  Council  and  the  House  of  Delegates, 
corresponding  respectively  to  a  senate  and  a  house  of  representa- 
tives. 

The  Executive  Council  consists  of  11  members  appointed  by 
the  President  for  a  term  of  four  years,  at  least  five  of  whom  must 
be  native  inhabitants  of  Porto  Rico.  Seven  of  the  members  of 
the  Executive  Council  are  also  the  heads  of  the  seven  executive 
departments  created  by  Congress. 

The  House  of  Delegates  has  35  members,  all  of  them  elected 
every  two  years  by  the  voters  of  the  Island,  each  of  the  7  elec- 
toral districts  into  which  the  Island  is  divided  being  entitled 
to  5  representatives. 

The  Island  is  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
by  a  resident  Commissioner — Luis  Munoz  Rivera. 

The  judiciary  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  composed  of  5 
judges  appointed  by  the  President;  7  district  courts,  the  judges 
of  which  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  for  a  term  of  four  years ; 
34  municipal  courts,  the  judges  of  which  are  elected  by  the 


BUREAU  OF  INSULAR  AFFAIRS  121 

people  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  57  justices  of  the  peace 
courts,  appointed  by  the  Governor.  There  is  also  a  United 
States  District  Court. 

Porto  Rico  lies  within  the  Tropics  hi  the  Caribbean  Sea,  450 
miles  east  of  Cuba,  75  miles  east  of  San  Domingo,  and  1,500 
miles  from  New  York.  Its  area  is  approximately  3,600  square 
miles  and  its  population  1,120,000. 

Porto  Rico  is  a  very  prosperous,  healthy  commonwealth  of 
unrivalled  natural  resources. 

Under  American  control  the  commerce  and  public  roads  of 
Porto  Rico  have  more  than  quadrupled,  the  value  of  real  estate 
has  more  than  trebled,  and  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  has  very 
greatly  improved.  There  is  now  expended  on  an  average 
$2,000,000  annually  in  the  cause  of  public  education  as  against 
4$35,000  before  the  transfer  to  the  United  States. 

An  irrigation  system  has  been  constructed  at  a  cost  to  date  of 
$5,138,991  which  has  brought  an  area  of  approximately  30,413 
acres  under  cultivation. 

An  organization  of  native  troops,  "The  Porto  Rico  Regiment 
United  States  Infantry,"  under  the  command  of  an  officer  of 
the  United  States  Army,  forms  a  part  of  our  Regular  Army  and 
is  maintained  by  the  United  States  Government  at  Henry 
Barracks  for  the  general  protection  of  the  Island. 

In  October,  1898,  165  miles  of  public  roads  had  been  con- 
structed at  a  cost  of  $2,560,927.  On  June  30,  1915,  there  had 
been  constructed  since  American  occupation  525  miles  at  a  cost 
of  $4,089,680. 

At  the  time  of  American  occupation  there  were  528  schools 
in  the  Island  with  an  enrollment  of  about  22,000  children.  Not 
one  building  especially  constructed  for  school  purposes  was  to  be 
found  in  the  Island.  The  schools  were  free  only  for  poor  chil- 
dren. Others  were  obliged  to  pay  a  monthly  fee  to  the  teacher. 

From  a  population  of  approximately  419,282  of  school  age — 
between  five  and  eighteen  years — there  were  enrolled  during 
the  last  year  168,319  pupils. 


122  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

There  are  now  449  school  buildings  owned  by  school  boards, 
and  1,045  rented,  making  a  total  of  1,494  school  buildings  in  use, 
with  3,934  school  rooms  and  2,461  teachers.  Since  American 
occupation  the  death  rate  has  decreased  nearly  fifty  per  cent. 
During  the  year  1901  it  was  40.86  per  thousand  and  in  1915  it 
was  19.78  per  thousand. 

Some  400,000  persons  or  nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
population  were  afflicted  with  hookworm,  a  cure  for  which  has 
been  discovered. 

By  proclamation  of  the  President  dated  July  25,  1901,  free 
trade  was  proclaimed  between  the  United  States  and  Porto 
Rico  and  a  very  remarkable  increase  has  been  made  in  the  com- 
merce of  Porto  Rico  since  that  time. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  into  Porto  Rico  have 
steadilyincreasedfrom$6,965,408,  in  1901,to  $30,929,831  in  1915. 
The  imports  into  Porto  Rico  from  foreign  countries  increased 
from  about  $1,952,728,  in  1901,  to  about  $2,954,465  in  1915. 

The  exports  to  the  United  States  from  Porto  Rico  were 
$5,581,288,  in  1901,  to  $42,311,920  in  1915.  The  exports  from 
Porto  Rico  to  foreign  countries  increased  from  $3,002,679,  in 
1901,  to  $7,044,987  in  1915.  The  total  commerce  of  the  Island 
has  increased  more  than  fourfold,  from  $17,502,103,  in  1901,  to 
$83,241,203  in  1915. 

The  balance  of  trade  against  Porto  Rico  in  1901  was  $334,169. 

The  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  Porto  Rico  in  1915  was 
$15,472,611. 

American  goods  constitute  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  imports 
and  America  receives  eighty -five  per  cent,  of  the  exports. 

The  enormous  growth  of  the  industries  in  Porto  Rico  under 
American  protectorate,  1901  to  1915,  is  shown  by  the  following 
table: 


Sugar       

1901 
$4,715,611 

IQIS 

$37,278,754 

Per  cent,  increase 
578 

Tobacco  

684,391 

9,246,543 

1,365 

Coffee      

1,678,765 

7,082,791 

421 

Fruit 

100,801 

3,44i,iS7 

3,133 

CHAPTER  XIV 
INFANTRY 

INFANTRY,  the  foot  soldiers  of  an  army, 
constitutes  its  main  fighting  element.  To- 
day, as  in  the  past,  the  backbone  of  an  army 
and  the  basis  of  its  military  organization  is  its 
infantry  or  the  number  of  rifles  in  the  infantry  regiment.  The 
cavalry  and  artillery  strength,  as  to  horses  and  cannon,  are  a 
definite  ratio  of  the  infantry  strength. 

The  infantry  arm  of  service,  under  the  National  Defense  Act 
of  June  3,  1916,  will  be  increased  from  thirty  regiments  to  sixty- 
five  regiments,  including  the  Porto  Rican  Regiment,  which  is 
commanded  by  a  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  United  States 
Infantry.  This  increase  will  be  in  five  annual  increments, 
commencing  July  1,  1916,  and  ending  July  1,  1920,  unless  the 
President  exercises  his  right  to  call  for  the  remaining  increments 
at  earlier  dates  by  reason  of  war  or  national  emergency.  This 
act  provides  an  infantry  peace  strength  of  approximately 
3,769  officers,  including  the  four  surgeons  and  two  veterinarians 
to  each  regiment,  and  87,620  enlisted  men,  and  an  increase  to 
127,985  enlisted  men  during  war. 

Upon  the  infantry  devolves  the  burden  of  every  campaign  or 
battle.  The  infantry  must  stand  the  brunt  of  the  attack.  The 
proper  training  of  our  infantry,  therefore,  is  a  primary  function 
of  the  War  Department. 

Modern  warfare  requires  but  one  kind  of  infantry — good 
infantry.  Good  infantry  can  defeat  an  enemy  greatly  superior 
in  numbers  but  lacking  in  training,  discipline,  leadership,  and 

123 


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Infantry  Bugler  in  heavy  marching  equipment  and  with  empty 
water  bag  on  top.  This  bag  holds  20  gallons  of  drinking  water 
which  is  sterilized  by  sterilizing  compound 


Officers  cross-country  riding 


How  old  is  Dobbins? 


A   veterinarian    searching   for  Negotiating  a  90°  hill 

the  reason  "why" 

Scenes  at  the  Mounted  Service  School  for  Officers,  Fort  Riley,  Kansas 


INFANTRY  125 

morale.  Infantry  service  is  not  less  technical  now  than  the  cav- 
alry service.  It  is  not  so  technical  as  the  artillery  service,  but 
the  nature  of  its  services  is  such  on  the  battlefield  that  it  requires 
more  intensive  and  longer  continued  training  and  disciplinary 
measures  to  make  it  efficient  in  carrying  out  its  military  functions. 

The  infantryman  must  walk,  carry  his  pack,  rule,  ammunition 
and  rations,  aggregating  about  forty-five  pounds.  In  recon- 
naissance work  he  is  thrown  very  much  upon  his  own  resources, 
and  often  works  independently.  While  it  is  desirable  to  develop 
that  individuality  which  makes  for  efficiency  in  scouting  and 
reconnaissance  work,  which  often  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  soldier, 
the  fact  remains  that  in  all  modern  training,  and  especially  in  the 
infantry,  team-work  is  essential.  Without  team-work  success 
is  impossible.  This  is  more  true  to-day  than  ever  before  on 
account  of  the  advance  of  modern  weapons,  instruments  and 
methods  of  warfare. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  mere  mechanical  drill  and 
precision  on  the  parade  ground  in  times  of  peace,  and  which  is 
readily  acquired,  than  in  the  stealthful  advance  under  cover  to 
attack  the  enemy  in  his  entrenched  position. 

The  daily  routine  of  the  American  soldier  is  rather  strenuous, 
yet  there  is  ample  time  for  study  and  recreation.  The  physical 
work  and  the  peculiar  training  renders  one  less  susceptible  to 
certain  diseases,  particularly  tuberculosis  so  common  in  some 
of  our  factory  districts.  The  real  benefits  of  military  training 
to  the  soldier  and  the  community  in  which  he  lives  are:  first,  an 
increased  capacity  to  produce  (higher  personal  efficiency); 
second,  a  respect  for  constituted  authority;  third,  immunity 
from  disease;  fourth,  reduction  in  crime. 

Infantry  is  the  basis  of  military  organization,  as  indicated 
in  table  on  page  126. 

The  Company  has  administrative  powers  over  its  men,  and 
constitutes  the  smallest  unit  for  messing,  quartering,  supplying 
equipment,  etc. 

The  Regiment  is  the  smallest  administrative  and  tactical  unit. 


126 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


UNIT 

STRENGTH 

COMMANDER 

Squad 
Platoon 
Company 
Battalion 
Regiment 
Brigade 
Division 
Army  Corps 
Army 

8  men, 
40  to  50  men 
1  to  4  Platoons 
4  Companies 
3  Battalions 
3  Regiments 
3  Brigades 
2  or  more  Divisions 
2  or  more  Army  Corps 

Corporal. 
Lieutenant  or  Sergeant. 
Captain 
Major 
Colonel 
Brigadier  General 
Major  General 
Lieut.  General 
General 

The  Brigade  is  a  tactical  unit.  The  Division  is  both  an  adminis- 
trative and  tactical  unit. 

The  highest  rank  now  authorized  by  law  in  our  Army  is  that 
of  Major  General,  of  whom  there  are  fourteen,  eleven  in  the 
line  and  three  in  the  Staff. 

The  size  of  the  platoon  is  fixed  as  the  number  of  men  whom  a 
Lieutenant  can  actually  command  upon  the  battlefield  and  carry 
forward  with  him  by  the  force  of  his  own  personality  in  an 
attack.  In  our  Army  one  First  Lieutenant  and  one  Second 
Lieutenant  are  authorized  for  each  Company,  Troop,  or  Battery. 
It  is  considered  by  some  military  critics  that  a  Lieutenant  can- 
not control  on  the  field  of  battle  more  than  forty  men.  At  war 
strength  (one  hundred  and  fifty  men)  additional  Lieutenants 
will  be  necessary,  as  platoon  leaders,  but  are  not  provided  for. 

The  trained  infantryman  is  called  upon  to  make  reconnais- 
sance, obtain  information  of  the  enemy,  guard  his  command  by 
systems  of  outpost  when  at  a  halt,  or  as  advance  and  rear  guards 
while  on  the  move.  He  must  be  able  to  construct  or  repair 
roads  and  bridges  over  which  he  marches;  prepare  shelter  when 
necessity  demands;  dig  intrenchments  to  reduce  his  own  vul- 
nerability in  the  face  of  an  enemy,  and  make  his  fighting  power 
greater;  communicate  by  systems  of  visual  signaling,  involving 
a  code  now  in  use,  called  "The  International  Code";  must 
understand  and  apply  the  principles  of  hygiene,  sanitation,  and 
first-aid;  must  know  something  of  woodcraft,  and,  above  all,  he 


INFANTRY  127 

must  keep  sufficiently  strong  and  rugged  to  withstand  the  rigors 
of  campaign. 

A  few  of  the  rules  laid  down  in  drill  regulations  and  textbooks 
on  infantry  training  and  of  general  bearing  relative  to  combat 
and  leadership  are  included  below  as  indicative  of  the  vital 
importance  and  broad  scope  of  this  branch  of  the  Service  and 
the  fallacy  of  depending  upon  raw,  untrained  troops  to  fight  the 
Nation's  battles. 

Commanding  officers  are  accountable  for  the  proper  training 
of  their  respective  organizations  within  the  limits  prescribed  by 
regulations  and  orders. 

Success  in  battle  is  the  ultimate  object  of  all  military  training; 
success  may  be  looked  for  only  when  the  training  is  intelligent 
and  thorough. 

The  excellence  of  an  organization  is  judged  by  its  field  efficiency. 
The  field  efficiency  of  an  organization  depends  primarily  upon  its 
effectiveness  as  a  whole.  Thoroughness  and  uniformity  in  the 
training  of  the  units  of  an  organization  are  indispensable  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  whole;  it  is  by  such  means  alone  that  the  requi- 
site team-work  may  be  developed. 

The  Drill  Regulations  are  furnished  as  a  guide.  They  provide 
the  principles  for  training  and  for  increasing  the  probability  of 
success  in  battle. 

The  following  important  distinctions  must  be  observed: 
(a)  Drills  executed  at  "attention"  and  the  ceremonies,  of  guard- 
mounting,  parades,  reviews,  and  inspections,  are  disciplinary 
exercises  designed  to  teach  precise  and  soldierly  movement,  and 
to  inculcate  that  prompt  and  subconscious  obedience  which  is 
essential  to  proper  military  control.  To  this  end,  smartness 
and  precision  should  be  exacted  in  the  execution  of  every  detail. 
Such  drills  should  be  frequent,  but  short,  (b)  The  purpose  of 
extended-order  drill  is  to  teach  the  mechanism  of  deployment; 
of  the  firings,  and,  in  general,  of  the  employment  of  troops  in 
combat.  Such  drills  are  in  the  nature  of  disciplinary  exercises 
and  should  be  frequent,  thorough,  and  exact  in  order  to  habituate 


128  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

men  to  the  firm  control  of  their  leaders.  Extended-order  drill  is 
executed  at  "ease."  The  Company  is  the  largest  unit  which 
executes  extended-order  drill. 

(c)  Field  exercises  are  for  instruction  in  the  duties  incident  to 
campaign.    Assumed  situations  are  employed.     Each  exercise 
should  conclude  with  a  discussion,  on  the  ground,  of  the  exercise 
and  principles  involved. 

(d)  The  combat  exercise,  a  form  of  field  exercise,  of  the  Com- 
pany, Battalion,  and  larger  units,  consists  of  the  application  of 
tactical  principles  to  assumed  situations,  employing  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  appropriate  formations  and  movements  of  close  and 
extended  order. 

Combat  exercise  must  simulate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  battle 
conditions  assumed.  In  order  to  familiarize  both  officers  and 
men  with  such  conditions,  companies  and  battalions  are  fre- 
quently consolidated  to  provide  war-strength  organizations, 
the  quota  of  officers  not  participating  being  assigned  as  observers 
or  umpires. 

Since  the  firing  line  can  rarely  be  controlled  by  the  voice 
alone  various  forms  of  visual  signalling  are  used. 

The  infantry  must  have  the  tenacity  to  hold  every  advantage 
gained;  the  individual  and  collective  discipline  and  skill  needed 
to  master  the  enemy's  fire;  the  determination  to  close  with  the 
enemy  in  attack,  and  to  meet  him  with  the  bayonet  in  defense. 
Infantry  must  be  trained  to  bear  the  heaviest  burdens  and  losses, 
both  of  combat  and  march. 

Modern  combat  demands  the  highest  order  of  training,  disci- 
pline, leadership,  and  morale  on  the  part  of  the  infantry. 

The  art  of  leadership  consists  of  applying  sound  tactical  princi- 
ples to  concrete  cases  on  the  battlefield. 

Self-reliance,  initiative,  aggressiveness,  and  a  conception  of 
team-work  are  the  fundamental  characteristics  of  successful 
leadership. 

A  correct  grasp  of  the  situation  and  a  definite  plan  of  action 
form  the  soundest  basis  for  a  successful  combat. 


S 
-a 


Cavalry  drill  on  the  Mexican  border 


Superior  equitation 


INFANTRY  129 

A  good  plan  once  adopted  and  put  into  execution  should  not 
be  abandoned  unless  it  becomes  clear  that  it  cannot  succeed. 

Officers  must  act  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  their  orders 
and  must  require  of  their  troops  the  strictest  discipline  on  the 
field  of  battle. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  when  leaders  know  the  capacity 
and  traits  of  those  whom  they  command;  hence,  in  making 
detachments,  units  should  not  be  broken  up,  and  a  deployment 
that  would  cause  an  intermingling  of  the  larger  units  in  the 
firing  line  should  be  avoided. 

In  order  to  lighten  the  severe  physical  strain  inseparable  from 
infantry  service  in  campaign,  constant  efforts  must  be  made  to 
spare  the  troops  unnecessary  hardship  and  fatigue;  but  when 
necessity  arises,  the  limit  of  endurance  must  be  exacted. 

The  complete  equipment  of  the  soldier  is  carried  into  action 
unless  the  weather  or  the  physical  condition  of  the  men  renders 
such  measure  a  severe  hardship.  This  complete  equipment 
affords  men  lying  prone  considerable  protection  against  shrapnel. 

AUTOMOBILE  INFANTRY  UNITS 

Although  infantry  has  been  transported  in  large  numbers  by 
automobile  and  motor  trucks  during  the  present  war  in  Europe 
no  such  transport  of  United  States  Army  Infantry  units  has 
yet  been  planned.  It  is  the  practice  in  Europe  to  group  such 
transportation  along  the  line  of  communication  or  near  the 
supply  bases  for  service  as  conditions  warrant.  Occasionally 
they  are  used  to  transport  troops,  but  their  normal  employment 
is  for  the  transport  of  supplies.  The  French  are  now  using 
large  numbers  of  these  having  pneumatic  tires  and  wide  wagon 
beds  similar  to  those  employed  by  express  companies  in  our 
country.  These  are  capable  of  carrying  twenty  to  twenty-five 
equipped  infantrymen  at  an  average  rate  of  at  least  fifteen  miles 
per  hour.  The  employment  of  motor  transportation  in  our 
divisional  trains  is  under  consideration.  The  entire  substitu- 


130  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

tion  of  motor  transport  for  animal-drawn  vehicles  in  divisions 
is  not  yet  considered  advisable.  A  partial  substitution  may  be 
made. 

We  are  now  using  with  our  organizations  along  the  Southern 
border  hundreds  of  motor  trucks  for  carrying  supplies,  and 
between  one  and  two  hundred  motorcycles  for  messenger  pur- 
poses. One  provisional  company  of  motorcyclists  was  organized 
in  the  Fifth  Brigade  by  General  Bell  for  tactical  use.  This 
company  gave  very  good  service  in  patrolling  and  reconnais- 
sance work.  The  recent  National  Defence  Act  did  not  provide 
for  infantry  motorcycle  organizations.  Undoubtedly  they 
should  often  be  used  for  messenger  purposes. 

It  is  planned  to  replace  a  certain  number  of  riding  animals  by 
automobiles.  The  commanding  generals  and  staff  officers  will 
be  able  to  perform  their  duties  more  efficiently  when  so  provided 
than  when  on  horseback. 

The  whole  question  is  one  that  is  in  a  formative  stage  in  our 
service,  but  is  developing  rapidly  due  to  the  employment  of  a 
great  deal  of  motor  transportation  along  the  Southern  border. 

NEW   ARMY   FIELD   COOKERY 

The  Punitive  Expedition  in  Mexico  has  tried  out  a  type  of 
wheeled  kitchen  which  marks  an  epoch  in  Army  field  cookery. 
This  kitchen,  mounted  on  two  wheels  and  weighing  complete 
about  2,100  pounds,  has  been  recommended  for  adoption  by 
Generals  Funston  and  Pershing,  and  numerous  Army  officers. 
It  has  a  normal  capacity  of  seventy-five  gallons,  or  800  pounds, 
of  cooked  food,  with  storage  capacity  for  fifty  to  seventy-five 
loaves  of  fresh  bread,  sufficient  food  for  three  meals  for  a  war- 
strength  company  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  men. 

This  kitchen  has  been  developed  along  the  lines  of  similar 
kitchens  used  in  the  present  European  War.  It  can  be  drawn 
by  a  team  of  horses  or  mules,  or  can  be  attached  to  a  motor 
truck  as  a  trailer  or  be  provided  with  its  own  motor  power. 


INFANTRY  131 

It  cooks  as  it  travels  along,  thus  minimizing  the  camp-kitchen 
bugbear  of  Army  field  service  and  maximizing  military  efficiency. 

Brigadier  General  John  F.  Morrison,  TL  S.  Army,  in  the  in- 
troduction to  his  recent  book,  "Training  Infantry,"  thus  epito- 
mizes the  importance  of  infantry  training: 

"There  is  nothing  more  important  to  an  army  than  the  correct 
training  of  its  infantry.  The  training  of  all  the  arms  has  much 
in  common,  but  training  infantry,  owing  to  the  manner  of  its  use 
in  battle,  calls  for  much  that  is  not  required  in  the  other  arms. 

"The  infantry  soldier  must  work  more  independently  than 
men  in  the  other  branches.  He  cannot  be  led  or  controlled  as 
can  men  in  groups  or  close  formations;  hence,  he  needs  to  be 
more  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  part  he  is  to  play.  This  in- 
struction cannot  be  given  him  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  man 
who  must  steadily  advance  on  an  enemy  in  position  requires 
not  only  higher  training  but  higher  discipline  than  one  who  does 
his  fighting  in  close  formation,  or  at  long  range  and  out  of  sight 
of  the  enemy  and  protected  from  hostile  fire  by  steel  shields. 

"  It  is  reported  as  an  incident  in  the  recent  Balkan  War  that  a 
General  of  Division,  whose  infantry  had  been  reinforced  by  the 
addition  of  fifty  per  cent,  of  recruits  who  had  only  received 
about  a  month's  training,  prepared  for  battle  by  sending  all  his 
new  men  to  the  rear,  preferring  to  fight  without  them.  His 
division  was  successful,  but  the  other  divisions,  which  retained 
their  new  men  in  ranks  during  combat,  broke  and  were  routed. 

"War  of  to-day  is  not  a  game  for  amateurs.  Infantry  to  be 
of  any  value  has  not  only  to  be  trained  but  to  be  properly  and 
thoroughly  trained.  On  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  this 
training  there  is  necessary  an  appreciative  understanding  of  the 
objects  sought,  earnest  effort,  tact,  enthusiasm,  and  a  real 
knowledge  of  men." 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  CAVALRY 

THE  Cavalry  branch  of  our  Army,  con- 
sisting of  15  regiments,  will  be  increased  by 
five  annual  increments,  June  30, 1916,  to  July 
1, 1920,  to  25  regiments  each  with  a  total 
authorized  peace  strength  of  59  officers,  including  surgeons  and 
veterinarians,  and  1,011  enlisted  men,  and  1,487  enlisted  men  at 
war  strength,  organized  as  indicated  in  the  diagram  on  page  133. 

At  present  about  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  our  Cavalry  is  in 
active  or  semi-active  service  along  the  Mexican  border,  in 
Hawaii,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Canal  Zone. 

The  Cavalry  is  the  eyes  and  ears  of  an  army  in  the  field.  It 
searches  out  the  enemy  and  secures  information  relative  to  its 
strength,  disposition,  and  movements.  The  Artillery  then 
prepares  the  way  for  victory  by  long-range  firing  with  shrapnel 
and  shell  while  the  Infantry  advances  for  the  main  attack. 
The  battle  over,  the  Cavalry  rushes  forward  to  collect  the  fruits 
of  victory  and  to  turn  the  enemy's  retreat  into  a  rout  and 
destroy  it.  If,  however,  the  Cavalry  is  inadequate  or  exhausted 
and  can  move  no  faster  than  the  Infantry,  the  defeat  of  the 
enemy  is  but  temporary  and  becomes  a  dignified,  tactful  re- 
tirement to  new  positions.  The  whole  process  must  then  be 
again  attempted  with  additional  losses. 

The  shortage  of  German  cavalry  in  the  European  War,  1915, 
on  the  eastern  front,  made  possible  the  masterly  retreat  of  the 
Russian  Army  from  one  position  to  another  and  prevented  its 
annihilation.  Cavalry  service,  therefore,  merits  the  profound 
consideration  in  determining  the  strength  of  a  field  army,  and 

132 


THE  CAVALRY 


133 


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134  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

calls  for  a  masterful,  scientific  and  practical  knowledge  of  the 
horse,  his  potentialities  and  limitations. 

Prior  to  hostilities  the  securing  of  military  information  de- 
volves upon  the  General  Staff.  This  includes  the  geography, 
resources  and  military  strength  of  the  various  nations  to  enable 
the  War  Department  to  decide  upon  the  size  of  an  army  or  ex- 
pedition, the  proportion  of  the  different  arms,  character  of  the 
clothing,  equipment,  etc.,  that  may  be  necessary  in  time  of  war. 

After  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  it  is  a  primary  function  of 
the  Cavalry  to  secure  military  information  in  the  theatre  of 
operations.  This  service  can  now  be  materially  augmented  by 
air  craft.  A  commander  to  properly  estimate  the  military  situa- 
tion arising,  must  be  constantly  supplied  with  reliable  informa- 
tion as  to  the  position,  strength  and  intention  of  the  enemy. 
"Reconnaissance"  is  the  military  term  used  to  designate  this  kind 
of  military  work  and  is  usually  made  by  cavalry.  Cavalry 
not  only  secures  information  but  screens  the  main  army  by 
keeping  the  enemy  at  a  distance.  Occasionally  a  brigade  or 
division  of  cavalry  may  be  required  to  push  boldly  ahead  one 
or  two  marches,  find  the  main  body  of  the  enemy,  and  preserve 
contact  with  it  until  the  main  armies  arrive.  Commanders  of 
independent  cavalry  must  solve  the  difficult  problems  confront- 
ing them  without  expecting  aid  from  other  troops.  A  brigade 
of  cavalry  on  reconnaisance  duty  covers  about  ten  miles  of  front. 

The  Cavalry  has  the  advantage  of  mobility  and  shock  action 
afforded  by  their  mounts.  The  cavalryman's  first  weapon  is  his 
gallant  steed  trained  to  respond  to  his  slightest  impulse.  Next 
comes  his  long  range  rifle,  then  the  automatic  .45-caliber  pistol, 
and  finally  his  sabre.  He  and  his  mount  are  indeed  a  composite 
fighting  unit,  a  great  military  asset.  The  United  States 
cavalryman,  with  his  up-to-date  equipment,  his  automatic 
pistol,  his  old  reliable  magazine  rifle,  and  his  young,  sound,  and 
sturdy  mount,  is  second  to  no  cavalryman  in  the  world. 

The  ultimate  and  supreme  test  of  cavalry  efficiency  is  then  a 
question  of  having  each  regimental  squadron  and  troop  com- 


THE  CAVALRY  185 

mander  so  train  each  cavalryman  as  to  automatically  obey  his 
will  and  command  when  in  action.  Cavalry  leadership  com- 
bines all  the  essentials  of  generalship,  confidence,  seasoned  judg- 
ment, resourcefulness,  indomitable  courage  and  zeal,  boldness 
in  decision  to  strike  quickly,  clearness  of  plan  of  action,  and 
orders  to  subordinates,  firmness  of  will,  inspiration,  and  esprit 
to  succeed,  and  last,  but  not  least,  loyalty. 

The  cavalry  commander  must  be  able  to  maneuver  at  fast 
trot,  to  grasp  opportunity  quickly,  and  to  deliver  telling  blows 
calculated  to  shock  and  demoralize  the  enemy,  and  insure  vic- 
tory for  his  own  command.  Poor  cavalry  is  worse  than  none 
at  all. 

Major  Lincoln  C.  Andrews,  United  States  Cavalry,  in  his 
book  "Fundamentals  of  Military  Training,"  sums  up  cavalry 
action  thus: 

"There  is  no  normal  attack  formation.  In  general,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  force  is  put  into  the  attacking  line  and  one-third 
in  the  reserve.  The  attacking  line  charges  with  only  the  force 
deemed  necessary,  the  other  troops  following  closely  in  support, 
lending  moral  support  to  the  charge  and  charging  as  opportuni- 
ties develop.  All  troops  rally  immediately  after  the  charge  and 
return  to  the  fight.  That  side  wins  in  the  end  which  has  the 
last  formed  troops  in  hand  for  charging;  hence  the  importance 
of  each  unit  quickly  rallying  and  getting  back  with  the  fight. 

"The  infantry  works  en  masse,  the  artilleryman  always  under 
direction  of  his  officers,  thus  constituting  the  bone  and  sinew  of 
its  mass  and  strength.  The  cavalry  patrols  are  the  fingers 
reaching  out,  brushing  aside,  feeling  for  a  good  hold  in  the 
struggle  to  come,  flashing  back  information  along  the  nerve 
channels  to  the  controlling  unit.  They  work  in  small  groups, 
often  as  individual  scouts,  perhaps  a  day's  march  away  from  their 
officers,  alone  with  their  military  consciences.  None  but  God 
will  know  whether  they  have  done  their  best;  whether  they  have 
dared  enough  to  accomplish  their  mission;  whether  when  oppor- 
tunity offered  for  them  to  gain  information  they  had  the  cool 


136  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

courage  and  resourcefulness  to  go  in  and  get  it  or  quietly  skulked 
in  safety  and  let  the  opportunity  pass. 

"  The  discipline  of  cavalry  must  develop  such  esprit  as  will 
insure  the  individual's  giving  his  uttermost,  be  he  lone  private, 
scouting,  or  non-commissioned  officer  leading  his  patrol.  That 
Colonel  who  trains  his  officers  and  men  all  to  look  to  him  for 
decision  in  all  matters  must  expect  disappointment  when  his 
troop  meets  actual  conditions  hi  campaign,  for  he  will  then  not  be 
present  to  control  every  situation;  and  his  men,  if  unused  to 
responsibility,  will  not  act  quickly  and  surely — even  worse, 
often  will  not  act  at  all. 

"The  troop  made  up  of  well-trained  squad  teams  is  the  fight- 
ing machine.  The  Colonel  of  the  regiment  wants  12  troops 
thus  trained  to  his  standard  of  efficiency,  and  three  Majors 
able  to  fight  them  to  the  fullest  advantage.  The  troop  com- 
manders must  know  the  principles  and  mechanisms  of  these 
squadron  maneuvers  not  alone  to  handle  their  troops  intelli- 
gently but  to  be  able  to  take  command  of  the  squadron  when 
occasion  demands. 

"The  fast  mounted  squadron  drill  in  close  order  gives  the 
mechanism  and  training  for  maneuvering  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy  preparatory  to  delivering  the  charge  in  mounted  com- 
bat. All  cavalry  drill  must  be  characterized  by  elasticity, 
whether  mounted  or  dismounted." 

In  dismounted  action  every  fourth  man  becomes  a  horse 
holder  to  hold  his  own  horse  and  those  of  three  troopers  hi  a 
sheltered  place  (if  possible),  while  the  troopers  advance  as  in- 
fantry (leaving  then*  sabres  on  their  mounts).  Later  this  man 
takes  the  horses  to  any  point  designated.  This  important  role 
of  cavalry  was  developed  in  our  Civil  War.  It  is  not  in  general 
use  in  foreign  cavalry  service  and  may  account  in  a  measure  for 
the  failure  of  foreign  cavalry  to  overtake  and  get  behind  and 
defeat  or  at  least  hold  in  check  retreating  columns  of  infantry. 

The  value  of  the  cavalry  raid  for  quick,  arduous,  and  daring 
work  of  vital  import  to  the  main  object  and  command  has  been 


THE  CAVALRY  137 

exemplified  many  times  by  the  present  Punitive  Expedition  in 
Mexico.  Probably  the  most  noteworthy  instance  is  that  of 
Colonel  Dodd's  forced  all-night  march  of  seventeen  hours 
covering  fifty-five  miles  of  mountainous  territory,  by  which 
he  overtook,  surprised,  and  defeated  a  much  larger  force  of 
blood-thirsty  Villa  Mexican  bandits  who,  the  day  previous, 
murdered  a  Mexican  garrison. 

During  the  past  two  years  I  have  been  privileged  to  attend 
part  of  two  seasons  of  equitation  at  the  Army  Service  Schools, 
Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  and  to  visit  the  Mounted  Service 
School  at  Fort  Riley,  Kansas.  One  who  has  habitually  handled 
horses  in  the  ordinary  way  soon  realizes  that  equitation  is  to 
modern  cavalry  service  what  scientific  farming  is  to  ordinary 
farming.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Captain  Robert  Vans  Ag- 
new,  veterinarian  United  States  Army,  and  lecturer  on  equi- 
tation Army  Service  Schools,  I  give  herewith,  in  part,  remarks 
of  general  interest  from  one  of  his  lectures: 

"Equitation,  as  applied  by  cavalry  forces,  is  a  most  vital 
feature  of  military  operations.  From  time  immemorial  the 
cavalry  horse  has  been  a  great  military  necessity  and  asset. 
But  the  cavalry  horse  has  no  patriotism.  A  soldier  in  battle  will 
fight  on  hour  after  hour  without  food  or  drink,  but  a  horse  must 
have  his  oats. 

"Cavalry  service  is  arduous,  yet  it  is  fascinating  and  absorb- 
ing. Once  a  cavalryman,  always  a  cavalryman,  is  a  favorite 
slogan.  Very  seldom  do  cavalrymen  reenlist  in  another  branch 
of  service  unless  they  become  unfitted  for  cavalry  service,  or 
have  been  promoted  to  the  Post  Non-commissioned  Staff. 

"To  each  cavalryman  is  assigned  a  horse,  for  the  care  and 
training  of  which  he  becomes  personally  responsible  under  the 
supervision  of  his  officers.  The  equipment  of  a  cavalryman 
weighs  as  much  as  that  of  the  Roman  horseman  of  1,500  years 
ago,  namely,  about  ninety  pounds.  This  equipment,  together 
with  the  rider,  in  time  of  peace,  aggregates  240  to  250  pounds, 
and  in  time  of  war  about  280  pounds. 


138  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

"The  first  duty  and  obligation  of  a  cavalryman  is  toward  his 
mount.  Horses  are  not  affectionate,  yet  the  good  cavalryman 
loves  his  horse  and  gives  it  consideration  over  himself.  Only 
after  his  horse  is  properly  cared  for  will  he  care  for  himself.  He 
understands  his  mount  is  not  built  to  carry  weight,  but  rather  to 
pull  a  load,  whereas,  man  is  built  to  carry  weight,  and  not  to 
pull  a  load.  A  man  can  lift  a  weight  that  will  crush  a  horse. 
Man's  back  is  vertical,  the  horse's  back,  horizontal.  This 
weak  spot  of  the  horse  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  by  the 
military  man  on  account  of  the  pressure  and  friction  effect  of 
the  excessive  load  a  horse  must  carry  under  service  conditions. 

"It  is  absolutely  imperative,  therefore,  that  every  officer  who 
has  anything  to  do  with  the  mounted  service  must  know  horse- 
manship in  its  comprehensive,  scientific,  and  practical  form, 
otherwise,  they  cannot  teach  and  train  those  under  them  to  be- 
come the  best  cavalrymen.  They  must  be  able  to  feed,  groom, 
saddle,  bridle,  make  a  bed  and  look  after  a  horse  like  an  expert. 
They  must  be  able  to  put  on  a  shoe  and  tell  at  a  glance  whether 
or  not  a  horse  is  properly  shod.  They  must  be  able  to  recognize 
the  causes  of  sore  backs  and  shoulders  and  know  exactly  what 
alterations  to  make  in  order  that  a  horse  may  be  continued  at 
work  without  further  damage  occurring.  They  must  be  able 
to  take  the  remounts  in  hand,  to  put  them  in  condition  for  ser- 
vice; teach  them  to  two- track,  shoulder  in  and  out,  turn  on  the 
forehand  and  haunches,  be  suppled  and  bent  until  they  move 
with  automatic  and  chronometrical  precision.  Under  service 
conditions  the  schooling  of  a  horse  should  familiarize  him  with 
strange  sights,  sounds,  noises,  cheering,  music,  guns,  masses  of 
men,  dark  nights  and  silence.  He  must  be  taught  to  stand 
alone  or  linked  to  other  horses  while  his  rider  dismounts  and 
goes  forward  as  an  infantryman  to  strengthen  the  firing  line. 
He  must  be  able  to  change  leads  at  the  canter  and  gallop  so  as  to 
rest  a  tired  leg;  he  must  be  taught  to  walk,  trot,  canter,  or  gallop, 
to  jump  freely  in  the  open  and  alone. 

"Through  the  influence  exerted  by  the  Mounted  Service 


THE  CAVALRY  139 

Schools,  at  Fort  Riley,  Kansas,  officers  are  taking  superior 
equitation  very  seriously  with  the  intention  of  imparting  it  to 
those  under  them  and  this  advance  toward  that  Utopian  goal 
'A  Perfect  Troop.'  Cavalry  must  be  trained  in  time  of  peace 
and  not  await  the  exigencies  and  rigors  of  war.  A  horse  loves 
to  be  in  a  mass  with  other  horses  and  hates  to  be  by  himself;  it 
takes  long  training  to  teach  him  individuality;  years  of  applica- 
tion are  necessary. 

"In  war  time  a  horse  is  tested  very  severely;  the  strain  is  ex- 
cessive; the  exposure  considerable;  the  food  and  water  variable 
in  amount  and  quality;  the  weight  carried  is  crushing;  the  roads 
are  questionable;  the  marches  long;  the  gait  rapid  and  the  halts 
are  short.  The  utmost  is  required  of  the  horses,  and  their  en- 
durance depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  training,  care,  and 
management  exercised.  Their  strength  must  be  husbanded 
until  the  crucial  hour  comes  which  necessitates  their  sacrifice. 
Here  resourcefulness  and  natural  aptitude  play  a  decisive  role, 
since  many  horses  must  enter  a  campaign  without  previous  mili- 
tary training.  Food  must  be  given  whenever  possible.  On  a 
march  a  soldier  can  rest  and  eat  a  sandwich  hi  a  few  minutes, 
but  it  takes  a  horse  about  five  minutes  to  eat  a  pound  of  oats 
and  twenty  minutes  to  eat  a  pound  of  hay.  Death  soon  follows 
the  exhaustion  of  a  horse.  The  resourceful  horsemaster  is  the 
one  who  manages  to  conserve  all  his  feed  and  gets  it  into  his 
animals  so  as  to  do  them  the  most  good  and  yet  move  his  com- 
mand far  and  fast  at  all  times  when  called  upon.  Distance 
and  speed  under  the  saddle  are  most  important  factors  in  cavalry 
service. 

"Injuries  under  the  saddle  are  identical  in  time  of  peace  or 
war,  but  during  war  they  are  more  severe.  Such  injuries  are 
due  to  (a)  friction  and  (b)  pressure.  The  structures  affected 
thereby  are  skin,  muscle,  and  bone.  When  friction  is  applied 
continually  to  the  skin  for  a  short  time  the  hair  is  rubbed  off 
and  the  part  becomes  damp  and  wet  with  serum,  indicating 
that  the  outer  covering  or  epithelium  has  been  worn  away  ex- 


140  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

posing  the  small  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  skin.  If  this  friction 
is  continued  a  deep  hole  will  wear  into  the  skin,  exposing  the 
tissues  underneath.  Pressure  acts  differently,  by  depriving 
the  skin  of  its  capillary  blood  supply.  Press  your  finger  against 
the  back  of  your  hand  and  note  the  white  mark  when  it  is  re- 
moved. Pressure  is  capable  of  killing  and  cutting  through  the 
tissues  of  the  body.  If  bone  cannot  resist  pressure  under  the 
saddle,  the  skin,  muscle,  and  bone  suffer;  but  so  long  as  there  is  a 
layer  of  muscle  under  the  skin  it  will  take  longer  for  the  injury 
to  appear,  since  the  muscles  act  as  a  cushion;  therefore,  the 
thinner  a  horse  gets  the  quicker  will  he  suffer  a  sore  back  in  con- 
sequence of  the  wasting  of  his  muscles. 

"If  you  start  on  a  long  march  with  a  fat  horse  you  invariably 
have  to  put  extra  pads  under  the  saddle  to  take  the  place  of  the 
lost  fat  and  muscle  that  the  horse  started  with.  There  is  no 
muscle  between  the  skin  and  bone  about  the  withers  and  spine, 
consequently,  continued  pressure  there  takes  but  a  short  time 
to  make  a  serious  sore  in  which  both  the  bone  and  the  skin  are 
affected.  No  living  tissue  can  withstand  continuous  pressure 
even  if  that  pressure  is  relatively  soft  and  elastic.  You  can, 
therefore,  readily  understand  how  easily  the  pressure  from  a 
saddle  of  iron  and  wood,  cinched  on  tightly,  too  tightly  hi  most 
cases,  supplemented  by  the  weight  of  a  rider  and  his  pack,  can 
cause  serious  injury  to  a  horse's  back.  No  matter  where  the 
injury  occurs,  friction  or  pressure,  or  both  combined,  are  the 
exciting  causes  and  are  accountable  for  all  of  the  pathological 
conditions  which  occur.  This  obvious  fact  should  ever  be  borne 
in  mind  by  any  one  who  has  occasion  to  saddle  or  harness  a  horse. 

"A  military  saddle  has  to  be  built  strong  and  heavy  in  order  to 
carry  weight  on  it  and  attached  to  it.  Every  part  of  the  saddle 
can  produce  some  injury.  Even  if  no  part  of  it  were  capable 
of  producing  an  injury,  there  would  be  a  proportion  of  sore 
backs  resulting  from  continuous  pressure.  The  best  cavalry- 
man, therefore,  dismounts  whenever  he  stops  his  horse  and  thus 
rests  and  safeguards  his  mount. 


THE  CAVALRY  141 

"The  average  cavalry  horse  weighs  about  a  thousand  pounds, 
and  can  carry  effectively  about  two  hundred  pounds  or  one-fifth 
its  own  weight." 

The  above  refers  to  but  one  important  phase  of  cavalry 
training  and  service.  The  question  of  forage,  the  proper  time 
and  method  of  feeding,  the  condition  of  the  horse's  legs,  feet, 
hoofs,  and  proper  shoeing,  grooming,  and  exercise,  are  other 
factors  concerning  each  of  which  volumes  have  been  written. 

The  American  troop  horse  has  a  very  difficult  role  to  play. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  one  horse  was  ridden  and  another  carried  the 
pack.  Our  officers  follow  this  practice  now,  so  do  our  cowboys, 
so  did  the  Boers.  Perhaps  our  Cavalry  will  have  to  come  to  this 
system.  It  is  expected  that  about  one-quarter  of  the  entire 
number  of  horses  engaged  in  a  campaign  will  have  to  be  re- 
placed every  three  months. 

Remount  stations  are  maintained  for  this  purpose.  The 
United  States  is  divided  into  three  remount  zones,  each  zone 
having  a  remount  depot  at  which  is  a  purchasing  board:  Fort 
Keogh,  Montana;  Fort  Reno,  Oklahoma;  and  Front  Royal, 
Virginia. 

An  interesting  account  of  how  horses  fare  in  war  appears 
in  a  published  report  of  the  Chief  Remount  Officer  with  the 
Canadian  troops  in  France.  It  states  there  are  approximately 
15,000  horses  with  the  Canadian  Army  Corps  in  France,  and 
that  even  in  modern  warfare  each  infantry  division  of  21,000 
men  requires  6,200  horses.  The  horses  of  a  division  are  taken 
care  of  by  twelve  veterinary  officers  and.  one  mobile  veterinary 
section  of  twenty-seven  men,  which  attends  to  the  horses  in  the 
firing  line.  There  is  one  Canadian  Cavalry  field  hospital  in 
France  composed  of  387  men  and  six  officers.  It  has  a  capacity 
of  1,000  cases,  and  the  work  which  is  done  there  is  really  remark- 
able. Horses,  which  in  previous  wars  and  in  civilian  life  would 
be  destroyed,  at  once  are  treated  so  successfully  that  in  due 
course  they  become  fit  for  military  duty  in  the  firing  line.  Of 
607  horses  sent  in  on  one  occasion  only  12  died;  597  eventu- 


142  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ally  became  fit  for  reissue,  or  to  be  sold  for  easy  duty.  The 
men  work  under  the  most  trying  conditions,  often  exposed  to  the 
fire  of  rifle  and  big  gun.  They  are  up  around  the  lines  all  the 
time  gathering  wounded  horses.  Their  horsemanship  is  re- 
markable. Wounded  horses  are  immediately  given  first  aid. 
Any  horse  that  can  walk  is  rushed  to  the  mobile  section,  or  field 
hospital,  his  wounds  are  carefully  treated,  and  every  care  given 
him. 

"During  the  second  battle  of  Ypres,  when  the  Canadians 
were  pressed  to  their  utmost,  at  no  time  was  the  supply  of  horses 
diminished  at  the  firing  line.  As  casualties  occurred  among  bat- 
tery and  transport  horses,  reinforcements  were  rushed  through 
the  storm  of  bursting  shells  to  take  their  places.  Although  our 
guns  were  within  300  yards  of  the  enemy,  there  never  was  a 
wagon  or  a  gun  lost  in  what  is  known  as  one  of  the  fiercest  en- 
gagements that  has  taken  place  in  this  war. 

"Horses'  wounds  heal  more  rapidly  than  man's.  Cases  of 
horses  with  ten  bullets  in  them  have  been  known  to  report 
complete  recovery  within  a  very  few  weeks.  In  fact,  some 
wounded  horses  have  been  back  in  the  firing  line  within  a  week. 
If  a  horse  cannot  walk,  however,  he  is  usually  considered  a  hope- 
less case,  and  he  must  be  destroyed." 

Figures  compiled  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture show  that  about  75,000  horses  were  exported  from  the 
United  States  during  four  of  the  early  months  of  the  war. 
On  January  1, 1915,  there  were  24,000,000  horses  in  this  country. 
Three  times  the  number  exported  during  these  four  months 
would  be  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  our  horse  supply.  But  a 
small  percentage  of  the  animals  exported  were  mares,  and  they 
were  for  the  most  part  mediocre  animals.  According  to  the 
best  information  obtainable,  Russia  had  25,000,000  horses 
before  the  war,  and  it  is  probably  the  only  country  that  will  not 
be  drained  of  horses  after  the  war.  The  United  States  and  Rus- 
sia have  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  world's  horses,  the  total  stock 
being  estimated  at  100,000,000. 


THE  CAVALRY  143 

The  daily  routine  of  a  cavalry  troop  is  strenuous. 

In  summer,  in  garrison,  the  troopers  are  up  at  6  A.  M.,  at 
which  hour  grain  is  fed  the  horses  by  stable  men.  Breakfast 
at  6:30  is  followed  by  a  hasty  police  of  barracks.  Drill  call 
is  followed  by  "Boots  and  saddles,"  about  7:20  and  the  troop  is 
off  for  mounted  drill,  lasting  about  two  hours.  "Stables" 
follows,  lasting  forty -five  minutes  to  one  hour,  depending  upon 
the  condition  of  the  horses.  Then  the  horses  are  watered  and 
led  into  the  stables  by  the  troop  where  they  are  again  fed  by  the 
stable  men.  In  the  afternoon  horses  are  allowed  to  run  loose  in 
the  corral  until  about  4:00  p.  M.,  when  they  are  led  into  the 
stables  by  the  troop  and  fed  hay  and  grain. 

Retreat  roll  call  at  6 :00  p.  M.  closes  the  day's  routine. 

On  Saturday  mornings  inspections,  generally  mounted,  take 
the  place  of  drills. 

In  the  field  troopers  stand  reveille  roll  call  about  6:00  A.  M., 
with  grooming  kits  and  feed  bags,  then  march  to  the  picket 
line  where  they  feed  and  groom  the  horses.  After  breakfast 
camp  is  broken  and  policed,  horses  are  watered  and  saddled, 
and  the  troop  is  off  for  the  day's  march.  Arriving  in  camp, 
picket  lines  are  laid,  horses  unsaddled  and  tied  on  the  line,  camp 
pitched,  horses  fed  and  groomed  before  dinner.  During  the 
afternoon  squad  leaders  inspect  the  horses  and  report  to  the 
veterinarian  any  that  are  sick  or  have  sore  backs  and  to  the 
horseshoer  any  that  need  shoeing,  who,  if  possible,  have  them  in 
good  condition  for  the  next  day's  march.  After  dinner  the 
troopers,  in  general,  have  until  4:00  P.  M.,  as  a  recreation  period. 
At  that  time  the  horses  are  led  or  ridden  to  water  and  fed..  After 
retreat  men  not  on  duty  are  again  on  recreation  until  "taps." 

In  the  winter  mounted  drills,  consisting  principally  of  horse 
training,  are  shorter  and  are  usually  held  in  the  riding  hall. 
The  troop  is  also  instructed  in  gymnastics,  packing,  saber  exer- 
cise, minor  tactics,  visual  signaling,  hippology,  scouting  and 
patroling,  first  aid,  and  dismounted  foot  drill,  with  and  without 
arms.  The  afternoons  are  devoted  to  school  for  non-commis- 


144  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

sioned  officers.  The  subjects  studied  are  small  arms  firing 
manual,  cavalry  service  regulations,  manual  of  interior  guard 
duty,  map  reading,  field  service  regulations,  Army  regulations, 
hippology,  field  engineering,  and  equitation. 

On  Saturdays  there  is  a  first-aid  drill  for  the  entire  squadron 
in  the  gymnasium,  conducted  by  a  medical  officer.  During 
the  target  season  all  drills  are  suspended  except  horse  exercise. 


Along  with  the  proof  of  our  character  as  a  nation  must  go  the  proof  of  our 
power  to  play  the  part  that  legitimately  belongs  to  us.  The  people  of  the 
United  States  love  peace.  They  respect  the  rights  and  covet  the  friendship  of 
all  other  nations.  They  desire  neither  any  additional  territory  nor  any  advan- 
tage which  cannot  be  peacefully  gained  by  their  skill,  their  industry,  or  their 
enterprise;  but  they  insist  upon  having  absolute  freedom  of  national  life  and 
policy,  and  feel  that  they  owe  it  to  themselves  and  to  the  rdle  of  spirited  inde- 
pendence which  it  is  their  sole  ambition  to  play,  that  they  should  render  them- 
selves secure  against  the  hazard  of  interference  from  any  quarter,  and  should 
be  able  to  protect  their  rights  upon  the  seas  or  in  any  part  of  the  world.  We, 
therefore,  favor  the  maintenance  of  an  Army  fully  adequate  to  the  requirements 
of  order,  of  safety  and  of  the  protection  of  the  Nation's  rights;  the  fullest  de- 
velopment of  modern  methods  of  seacoast  defense  and  the  maintenance  of  an 
adequate  reserve  of  citizens  trained  to  arms  and  prepared  to  safeguard  the  people 
and  territory  of  the  United  States  against  any  danger  of  hostile  action  which  may 
unexpectedly  arise;  and  a  fixed  policy  for  the  continuous  development  of  a  Navy 
worthy  to  support  the  great  naval  traditions  of  the  United  States  and  fully 
equal  to  the  international  tasks  which  this  nation  hopes  and  expects  to  take  a 
part  in  performing. — From  the  Democratic  Party  Platform. 


U.  S.  Field  Artillery  on  the  march 


Field  Artillery  "bracketing  the  target 


Target  practice.     Field  artillery  using  observing  mast 


"Fire."     Gun  at  full  recoil 


Field  artillerV  in  position  at  edge  of  woods 


Gun  and  caisson  "ready" 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY 

THE  Field  Artillery  branch  of  service,  con- 
sisting of  six  regiments,  will  as  newly  organ- 
ized consist  of  126  gun  or  howitzer  batteries 
organized  into  21  regiments.  The  increase 
will  be  in  five  annual  increments  of  three 
regiments  each,  July  1,  1916  to  July  1, 1920.  There  will  be  6 
guns  or  howitzers  to  each  regiment  and  these  may  be  of  the 
same  or  different  calibers  and  classes.  The  Field  Artillery  in- 
cludes Mountain  Artillery,  Light  Artillery,  Horse  Artillery, 
Heavy  (field  and  siege)  Artillery. 

In  time  of  threatened  or  actual  hostilities  the  President  is 
authorized  to  organize  such  number  o*  ammunition  batteries 
and  battalions,  depot  batteries  and  b;  ttalions,  and  such  artil- 
lery parks,  with  such  number  and  grades  of  personnel  and  such 
organization  as  he  may  deem  necessary. 

The  necessary  officers  and  enlisted  men  shall  be  taken  from 
the  Officer's  Reserve  Corps  and  the  Regular  Army  Reserve. 
Each  regiment  of  Field  Artillery  consists  of  one  colonel,  one 
lieutenant  colonel,  one  captain,  one  headquarters  company, 
one  supply  company  and  such  number  of  gun  and  howitzer 
battalions  as  the  President  may  direct.  Nothing  shall  prevent 
the  assembling,  in  the  same  regiment,  of  gun  and  howitzer 
battalions  of  different  calibers  and  classes. 

Each  headquarters  company  of  a  regiment  of  two  battalions 
consists  of  one  captain,  one  first  lieutenant,  one  regimental 
sergeant-major,  two  battalion  sergeants-major,  one  first  ser- 

145 


146  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

geant,  two  color  sergeants,  one  mess  sergeant,  one  supply 
sergeant,  one  stable  sergeant,  two  sergeants,  nine  corporals, 
one  horseshoer,  one  saddler,  one  mechanic,  three  buglers,  two 
cooks,  five  privates  (first  class),  fifteen  privates,  one  band  leader, 
one  assistant  band  leader,  one  sergeant  bugler,  two  band  ser- 
geants, four  band  corporals,  two  musicians  (first  class),  four 
musicians  (second  class),  and  thirteen  musicians  (third  class). 
When  a  regiment  consists  of  three  battalions  there  is  added  to 
the  headquarters  company  one  battalion  sergeant-major,  one 
sergeant,  three  corporals,  one  bugler,  one  private  (first  class), 
and  five  privates.  When  no  enlisted  men  of  the  Quartermaster 
Corps  is  attached  for  such  positions,  there  is  added  to  each 
mountain  artillery  headquarters  company  one  packmaster 
(sergeant,  first  class),  one  assistant  packmaster  (sergeant),  and 
one  cargador  (corporal). 

Each  supply  company  of  a  regiment  of  two  battalions  con- 
sists of  one  captain,  one  first  lieutenant,  two  regimental  supply 
sergeants,  one  first  sergeant,  one  mess  sergeant,  one  corporal, 
one  cook,  one  horseshoer,  one  saddler,  two  privates,  and  one 
wagoner  for  each  authorized  wagon  of  the  field  train.  When 
a  regiment  consists  of  three  battalions,  there  is  added  to  the 
supply  company  one  second  lieutenant,  one  regimental  supply 
sergeant,  one  private,  and  one  wagoner  for  each  additional 
authorized  wagon  of  the  field  train. 

Each  gun  or  howitzer  battery  consists  of  one  captain,  two 
first  lieutenants,  two  second  lieutenants,  one  first  sergeant,  one 
supply  sergeant,  one  stable  sergeant,  one  mess  sergeant,  six 
sergeants,  thirteen  corporals,  one  chief  mechanic,  one  saddler, 
two  horseshoers,  one  mechanic,  two  buglers,  three  cooks, 
twenty-two  privates  (first  class),  and  seventy-one  privates. 
When  no  enlisted  men  of  the  Quartermaster  Corps  are  attached 
for  such  positions  there  is  added  to  each  battery  of  mountain 
artillery  one  packmaster  (sergeant,  first  class),  one  assistant 
packmaster  (sergeant),  and  one  cargador  (corporal). 

Each  gun  or  howitzer  battalion  consists  of  one  major,  one 


THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY  147 

captain,  and  batteries,  as  follows :  Mountain  artillery  battalions 
and  light  artillery  gun  or  howitzer  battalions  serving  with  the 
field  artillery  of  Infantry  divisions  contain  three  batteries;  horse 
artillery  battalions  and  heavy  field  artillery  gun  or  howitzer 
battalions  contain  two  batteries.  The  President  may  in  his 
discretion  increase  the  headquarters  company  of  a  regiment  of 
two  battalions  by  two  sergeants,  five  corporals,  one  horseshoer, 
one  mechanic,  one  private  (first  class),  and  six  privates;  the 
headquarters  company  of  a  regiment  of  three  battalions  by  one 
sergeant,  seven  corporals,  one  horseshoer,  one  mechanic,  two 
cooks,  two  privates  (first  class),  and  seven  privates;  the  supply 
company  of  a  regiment  of  two  battalions  by  one  corporal,  one 
cook,  one  horseshoer,  and  one  saddler;  a  gun  or  howitzer  battery 
by  three  sergeants,  seven  corporals,  one  horseshoer,  two  me- 
chanics, one  bugler,  thirteen  privates  (first  class),  and  thirty- 
seven  privates. 

In  warfare  the  Field  Artillery  prepares  the  way  for  victory  by 
its  firing  with  shrapnel  and  shell.  Its  special  qualifications  are 
ability,  first,  to  reach  the  position  of  action  at  the  proper  time  and 
in  effective  condition;  second,  to  deliver  an  effective  and  over- 
powering fire  upon  any  designated  part  of  the  enemy's  position. 
To  meet  the  first  requirement  it  must  be  prepared  to  cover 
long  distances  quickly,  to  overcome  all  the  difficulties  and  ob- 
stacles of  the  route,  and  to  occupy  the  position  in  a  skillful 
manner  with  men,  animals,  and  material  in  condition  for  effi- 
cient service.  To  meet  the  second  requirement  it  must  be  pre- 
pared to  reach  any  part  of  the  battlefield  with  an  effective  and 
sustained  fire  and  to  concentrate  its  fire  upon  any  desired  target. 

Mobility,  thorough  training  in  fire  discipline  and  fire  direc- 
tion and  extensive  practice  over  varied  country  are  essential 
requisites  of  these  qualifications,  the  attainment  of  which  is  the 
special  object  of  artillery  instruction. 

The  course  of  training  laid  down  in  drill  regulations  is  de- 
signed to  develop  a  settled  habit  of  performing  efficiently  the 
ordinary  duties  pertaining  to  the  service  of  artillery  so  that  these 


148  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

functions  may  be  performed  naturally  and  readily  in  the  excite- 
ment of  action.  The  regulations  also  prescribe  the  principles 
according  to  which  artillery  is  to  be  handled  and  fought. 

Another  object  of  Field  Artillery  instruction  is  to  develop 
resourcefulness,  initiative,  and  self-reliance  on  the  part  of  officers 
of  all  grades  in  applying  the  principles  of  the  regulations  to  the 
special  conditions  with  which  they  will  have  to  deal  hi  war. 

Instruction  hi  garrison  is  conducted  so  as  to  afford  thorough 
practical  training  of  officers  and  men  in  the  duties  which  will 
fall  to  them  in  campaign. 

Commanding  officers  of  Field  Artillery  carry  out  such  annual 
programs  of  instruction  as  will  prepare  artillery  officers  for  the 
duties  of  the  next  higher  grade  in  time  of  war.  Captains  are  re- 
quired to  exercise  command  of  battalions,  lieutenants  command 
of  batteries,  during  a  part  of  each  annual  course  of  instruction. 
Solutions  of  practical  problems  involving  at  first  simple  tactical 
situations  with  appropriate  units  are  required.  Officers  are 
trained  to  think  quickly  and  logically  and  to  assume  responsibil- 
ities unhesitatingly.  They  are  encouraged  to  make  suggestions 
based  upon  their  practical  experience  in  regard  to  methods  of 
instruction  as  well  as  different  mechanical  features  of  the  ma- 
teriel. The  instruction  commences  with  the  smallest  unit,  the 
section,  and  proceeds  to  the  larger  ones  in  succession  culminating 
in  the  annual  target  practice  and  field  maneuvres  by  the  regi- 
ment. 

Great  precision  and  attention  to  detail  are  essential  in  order 
that  the  soldier  may  acquire  the  habit  of  implicit  obedience 
of  orders  and  of  accurate  performance  of  his  individual  duties 
as  indispensable  to  efficiency  in  combined  training. 

Recruits  are  assembled  in  small  squads  for  the  beginning  of 
their  instruction.  As  the  instruction  progresses  they  are 
grouped  according  to  proficiency  in  order  that  all  may  advance 
as  rapidly  as  their  abilities  permit.  This  training  includes  the 
duties  of  sentinels,  the  care  of  equipments,  packing  knapsacks, 
tent  pitching,  individual  cooking,  care  of  the  artillery  horses, 


U.  S.  Army  3  in.  field  gun,  used  against  aircraft 


U.  S.  Army  6  in.  Howitzer 


THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY  149 

pistol  practice,  first  aid,  and  the  customs  and  courtesies  of  the 
service. 

The  Field  Artillery  service  regulations  have  recently  been 
revised  so  as  to  embrace  the  progress  in  the  employment  of  this 
arm  as  derived  from  the  practice  at  the  School  of  Fire  for  Field 
Artillery,  at  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma,  and  the  experience  of  the 
Balkan  and  the  European  wars. 

On  account  of  the  destructive  effect  of  artillery  projectiles, 
it  is,  in  general,  necessary  to  post  guns  so  as  to  conceal 
them  from  the  enemy,  behind  hill  crests,  or  trees,  and  in  ra- 
vines, or  in  prepared  gun  pits.  As  the  cannoneers  cannot 
seethe  target  the  gun  must  be  "laid"  by  especially  designed 
instruments.  The  direction  is  given  by  the  panoramic 
sight  and  the  elevation  by  a  quadrant.  The  point  of  burst 
in  the  air  of  shrapnel  is  regulated  by  an  instrument  called 
a  fuse  setter.  Shell  burst  is  regulated  upon  striking  by  the 
automatic  action  of  the  percussion  fuze.  The  battery  com- 
mander selects  a  position,  generally  some  distance  from  the 
guns,  where  he  can  see  the  target  or  the  enemy.  His  com- 
mands are  then  transmitted  to  the  battery  by  telephone  or  by 
semaphore  signal  flags.  He  determines  the  direction  in  which 
the  guns  shall  point  and  the  elevation  to  be  given  them  by  the 
battery  commander's  telescope  or  aiming  device  and  the  dis- 
tance to  the  enemy  is  found  by  means  of  a  portable  range 
finder. 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  aeroplanes,  our  field  artillery  has 
had  little  practice  hi  the  use  of  aeroplanes  in  the  observation  of 
fire  and  in  locating  targets. 

The  system  of  using  the  aeroplane  in  the  regulation  of  artillery 
fire  by  the  Argentine  Field  Artillery,  described  by  Col.  Ricardo 
Sola,  is  as  follows : 

"After  bracketing  (firing  over  and  short)  the  target,  the  bat- 
tery should  be  prepared  to  fire  two  salvos  with  percussion  shell. 
When  the  aeroplane  reaches  the  position  agreed  upon,  usually 
above  the  battery  and  at  an  altitude  of  500  to  800  meters,  the 


150  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

first  reference  salvo  is  fired  with  the  shorter  range  of  the  bracket 
increased  by  100m.  after  an  interval  of  5  seconds,  the  second 
salvo  is  fired  with  an  increased  range  of  300m.  The  front 
covered  should  be  at  least  100m.  If,  after  the  reference  salvos 
the  aeroplane  continues  moving  toward  the  enemy,  the  battery 
commander  infers  that  the  observer  has  failed  to  note  the  fall 
of  the  projectile  and  the  salvos  are  repeated.  The  report  of 
the  observer  should  indicate  graphically  the  striking  position 
of  the  salvos  with  reference  to  the  objective  and  contain  all 
other  useful  information  obtained;  it  is  thrown  from  the  aero- 
plane to  reach  the  ground  in  rear  of  the  battery.  Signal  rockets 
flags,  etc.,  may  be  used  to  convey  information  when  agreed  upon. 

"Each  battery  is  provided  with  four  pieces  of  white  cloth  which 
can  be  united  in  pairs  to  make  two  signal  flags  two  meters  square; 
these  are  stretched  on  the  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  battery,  one 
near  to  the  centre  gun  and  the  other  about  100m.  farther  to  the 
rear  in  the  plane  of  fire.  When  the  aviator's  report  is  satisfac- 
tory, the  signals  are  removed;  otherwise,  the  observation  is 
continued." 

I  have  used  the  above  foreign  item  to  impress  readers  with  the 
fact  that  away  down  in  Republic  of  Argentina,  South  America, 
the  field  artillery  service  is,  in  that  respect,  superior  to  our  own 
field  artillery.  Yet,  the  aeroplane  is  an  American  invention. 

Field  Artillery  commanders  naturally  seek  the  best  possible 
cover  and  concealment  for  their  guns.  This  renders  accurate 
identification  of  artillery  targets  very  difficult  and  again  the 
aeroplane  asserts  its  military  value.  The  target  once  identified, 
the  question  of  accurate  range  becomes  uppermost.  Bracket- 
ing for  range  then  becomes  the  supreme  test  of  battery  effici- 
ency, for  well-directed  fire  usually  produces  a  noticeable  effect, 
while  poorly  adjusted  fire  produces,  as  a  rule,  no  effect,  wastes 
ammunition,  and  encourages  the  enemy. 

We  have  no  tractor  sets  for  siege  howitzers  such  as  have  cre- 
ated such  havoc  for  the  Germans  and  Austrians.  The  Austrian 
30.5  cm.  (12  inch)  automobile  mortar  shares  with  the  Ger- 


THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY  151 

man  28  cm.  howitzer  the  distinction  of  having  wrought  the 
greatest  destruction.  The  Germans  have  used  a  few  42  cm. 
(16 1  inch)  mortars  with  great  success,  notably  in  battering  down 
the  Belgian  fortifications,  at  Liege. 

The  4.7-inch  gun  and  the  6-inch  howitzer  are  the  standard 
heavy  field  artillery  of  our  service.  They  usually  operate  with 
a  field  army,  being  detached  as  occasion  demands.  The  present 
ammunition  supply  is  168  rounds  per  gun  with  the  battery  or  84 
rounds  in  the  case  of  the  howitzer.  The  caisson  and  its  limber 
are  both  placed  alongside  the  gun  to  give  the  cannoneers  better 
protection,  but  at  the  expense  of  being  a  more  vulnerable  target. 
This  condition  seldom  occurs,  however,  as  all  artillery  is  habitu- 
ally concealed  behind  hills,  trees,  etc.  (All  artillery  is  vulner- 
able to  attack  by  infantry  and  cavalry  while  on  the  march.) 
These  guns  are  to  be  used  in  taking  up  the  work  of  the  3-inch 
guns  when  the  range  exceeds  4,000  yards.  Long  range  firing  is 
to  be  avoided  unless  the  effect  is  apparent,  primarily  its  use 
should  be  to  combat  hostile  artillery,  to  cover  deployment  of 
friendly  infantry  and  artillery,  to  prevent  similar  deployment 
of  the  enemy,  to  assist  in  flanking  and  enveloping  movements, 
to  destroy  material  objects  and  to  cover  pursuits  or  retirements. 

In  rear-guard  actions  the  heavy  guns  may  be  used  to  gain 
time  by  their  long  range  firing. 

The  Field  Artillery  service  calls  for  high-grade  men  of  educa- 
tion, good  judgment,  and  genuine  courage.  They  must,  first 
of  all,  be  good  horsemen.  Then*  day's  routine  is  very  strenuous, 
caring  for  their  animals,  guns,  limbers,  and  personal  equipment. 
This  service,  notwithstanding,  is  very  fascinating  and  absorbing. 
A  good  all-around  field  artilleryman  requires,  perhaps,  three 
years  in  the  making.  This  contemplates  a  good  working  knowl- 
edge of  drill  regulations;  wigwagging  and  signalling  by  sema- 
phores, buzzer,  or  telephone;  ability  to  make  and  read  military 
maps;  the  care,  use,  and  adjustment  of  fire-control  telescopes 
and  observing  instruments;  care  and  preservation  of  battery 
equipment;  packing  on  animals  for  mountain  artillery;  hippol- 


152  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ogy,  equitation,  horse  training,  first  aid,  hygiene  and  sanitation; 
ability  to  instruct  recruits,  i.e.,  imparting  of  knowledge  already 
obtained  to  others. 

To  perfect  each  man  in  the  above  subjects  devolves  upon  all 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  from  the  battery  com- 
mander down.  A  school  for  non-commissioned  officers  and 
selected  privates  is  usually  maintained  in  addition  to  the  regular 
battery  instruction  periods  and  drills. 

The  3.8-inch  howitzer  and  the  3-inch  gun  carriages,  models 
1913,  are  of  the  split  trail  type.  Many  parts  of  the  carriages 
are  interchangeable.  These  carriages  permit  elevations  exceed- 
ing 50  degrees  and  are  adapted  to  the  attack  of  air  craft. 

A  7.6-inch  siege  howitzer  and  carriage  have  been  designed 
and  are  under  construction.  This  battery  will  be  divided  into 
two  loads  for  transport,  each  load  8,000  pounds.  The  pro- 
jectile weighs  240  pounds,  muzzle  velocity  1,100  feet  per  second; 
maximum  range  at  40  degrees  elevation  will  be  11,000  yards. 
By  using  a  190-pound  projectile  with  a  very  long,  sharp  head  the 
muzzle  velocity  will  be  1,350  feet  per  second  and  the  maximum 
range  12,250  yards. 

A  9.5-inch  siege  howitzer  and  carriage  are  being  designed. 
The  projectile  weighs  480  pounds,  muzzle  velocity  1,200  feet 
per  second,  maximum  range  at  40  degrees  elevation  will  be  11,000 
yards.  Greater  range  can  be  obtained  with  a  lighter  projectile. 
It  will  be  subdivided  into  five  loads  for  transport,  the  heaviest 
about  1 1 ,000  pounds. 

In  order  to  increase  the  maximum  ranges  lighter  projectiles 
are  under  consideration  for  the  4.7-inch  gun  and  the  6-inch 
howitzer. 

A  meter  base  Goerz  range  finder  has  been  adopted  and  is 
being  manufactured  in  this  country.  It  weighs  25  pounds  and 
is  to  be  carried  on  off  horse  or  suspended  from  the  saddle.  The 
maximum  range  is  20,000  yards;  power  15;  field  2.4  degrees.  It 
has  means  of  measuring  angle  of  sight  and  for  quick  adjust- 
ment. 


THE  FIELD  ARTILLERY  153 

Goerz  scissors  observing  instrument  is  also  under  manufacture 
in  this  country. 

To  facilitate  the  observation  of  fire  from  positions  near  the 
gun,  observation  masts  and  ladders  are  mounted  on  caissons. 
These  ladders  are  folded  for  transportation  but  are  quickly 
raised  for  use  with  the  observer's  seat  at  a  height  of  twenty-five 
or  thirty  feet. 

With  each  battery  it  is  proposed  to  carry  two  machine-gun 
caissons  with  4,200  rounds  of  ammunition. 

The  accuracy  life  of  3-inch  field  guns  exceeds  5,000  rounds 
under  battle  conditions. 

An  anti-air-craft  gun  firing  a  projectile  weighing  six  pounds, 
with  a  muzzle  velocity  of  2,400  feet  per  second  has  been  devel- 
oped. 

Yale  University  maintains  four  batteries  of  field  artillery. 
The  University  of  Minnesota,  Perdue  University,  and  the 
University  of  Illinois  each  maintain  one  battery  of  field  artillery. 
Students  of  Harvard  and  Brown  University  are  members  of 
batteries. 

The  following  general  items  were  obtained  from  "Notes  on 
Field  Artillery,  Army  Service  Schools." 

Howitzers  enable  a  division  to  act  independently. 

The  tactical  artillery  unit  is  the  battalion. 

The  Germans  with  6.4  guns  have  the  highest  percentage  per 
1,000  rifles:  the  United  States  with  3.1  the  lowest. 

Artillery  can  easily  keep  up  with  the  troops  it  accompanies. 

In  advancing  to  position  it  usually  moves  at  the  trot,  in 
occupying  position  at  the  walk  or  trot.  It  seldom  moves  at 
the  gallop,  but  when  circumstances  require,  it  gallops  in  line  for 
short  distances  only.  Average  march  for  a  battery  is  fifteen  to 
twenty  miles  per  day. 

"The  statement  that  'a  battery  seen  is  a  battery  lost'  still 
holds  true.  In  the  Balkan  wars,  the  Bulgarians  relied  upon 
long  distance  firing.  The  Serbians  usually  tried  to  get  within 
2,000  yards.  At  Yenidze-Yardar,  the  Turks  held  up  two  Greek 


154  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

divisions  by  covering  a  bridge  at  6,800  yards.  As  a  rule,  rather 
than  cross  exposed  areas,  extreme  ranges  were  used  or  darkness 
was  awaited.  In  order  to  be  able  to  deliver  an  effective  fire, 
the  artillery  must  take  its  chance  and  not  be  afraid  to  suffer 
losses.  On  the  march,  artillery  must  be  placed  with  a  view  to 
security  and  availability.  Artillery  is  usually  not  assigned  to 
the  advance  guard  of  a  force  smaller  than  a  brigade.  It  is  not 
the  size  but  the  mission  of  the  command  that  should  determine 
the  strength  in  artillery.  A  pursuit  will  soon  resolve  itself 
into  attacks  on  well-defined  positions  which  the  retreating  force 
defends  to  cover  the  assembly  of  its  march  columns  on  the  roads. 
A  retreating  force  which  adheres  to  roads  will  outdistance  a  pur- 
suing force  advancing  across  country. 

"Mountain  artillery  is  especially  suited  to  accompany  the  in- 
fantry line.  In  considering  a  position,  protection  is  secondary 
to  ability  to  deliver  effective  fire.  Advantages  of  positions  be- 
hind the  crest  are,  greater  mobility,  ability  to  act  by  surprise, 
greater  field  of  fire,  hostile  observation  made  more  difficult, 
ammunition  supply  easier. 

"A  battery  occupies  a  front  of  100  yards,  a  battalion  400 
yards,  a  regiment  900  yards.  Light  guns  are  rarely  placed  in 
tiers.  With  howitzers  or  heavy  guns  in  the  second  line  this  may 
be  done.  Firing  over  infantry  must  be  considered  as  the  normal 
procedure  and  is  not  dangerous.  The  best  position  for  the 
artillery  in  supporting  the  infantry  is  1000  yards  in  rear  of  the 
infantry  line,  in  which  case  the  artillery  can  support  the  in- 
fantry up  to  200  yards  from  the  hostile  trenches,  and  on  the 
defense  until  the  hostile  attack  arrives  within  charging  distance. 
In  offensive  action,  the  necessity  of  getting  within  suitable 
and  effective  range  of  the  hostile  positions  will  usually  govern." 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS 

THE  Coast  Artillery  Corps  is  charged  with  the 
care  and  use  of  fixed  and  movable  seacoast  batter- 
ies, including  submarine  mine  defense  of  harbors. 

This  Corps  is  administered  by  the  Chief  of  Coast 
Artillery,  Major  General  E.  M.  Weaver,  as  a  bureau 
of  the  War  Department,  and  who  by  virtue  of  this  office  is  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and  Fortifications.  He  is 
an  additional  member  of  the  General  Staff  Corps  and  the  ad- 
visor and  informant  of  the  Chief  of  Staff  in  respect  to  the  busi- 
ness under  his  charge. 

The  authorized  strength  of  this  Corps,  715  officers,  and 
19,019  enlisted  men,  will  be  increased  by  five  annual  increments, 
July  1,  1916  to  July  1,  1920,  to  1,200  officers  and  30,039  enlisted 
men,  organized  into  battery  service  uni  ts  in  each  Coast  Defense 
Command  by  the  Coast  Defense  Commander  and  be  given 
local  numerical  designations.  There  will  be  twenty-two  bands. 
During  the  Civil  War  and  for  thirty  years  following  our  coast 
defense  armament  consisted  of  smooth-bore,  muzzle-loading 
cannon  of  various  calibers,  including  15-inch  and  20-inch  guns 
mounted  on  barbette  carriages.  Black  powder  and  spherical 
shot  and  shell  were  used.  This  harbor  defense  gradually  passed 
from  a  state  of  highest  comparative  efficiency  with  that  of  other 
nations  in  1860,  to  one  of  extreme  inferiority  in  1895.  Congress 
neglected  to  keep  apace  with  the  foreign  development  of  breech- 
loading,  rifled  cannon  using  elongated  projectiles  and  brown 
prismatic  powder.  There  were  no  industries  in  this  country  to 
turn  out  this  type  of  armament  and  ammunition.  In  1883 

155 


156  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Congress  directed  a  joint  board  of  Army  and  Navy  officers  to 
report  on  ways  and  means  of  providing  adequate  modern  coast 
fortifications.  This  board  known  as  the  Gun  Foundry  Board, 
submitted  its  report  in  1884.  The  following  year  Congress 
directed  the  President  to  appoint  a  new  board,  since  known  as  the 
Endicott  Board,  to  examine  and  report  the  seaports  at  which 
fortifications  or  other  defenses  were  most  required;  the  character 
and  kind  of  defenses  best  adapted  to  each;  and  the  utilization 
of  torpedoes,  mines,  and  other  defensive  appliances.  The  sched- 
ule laid  down  by  the  Endicott  Board  was  very  comprehensive 
and  provided  for  fortifying  twenty-four  harbors.  Guns  of 
various  calibers  from  3  to  12  inch  and  12-inch  mortars  were 
provided.  Provision  was  also  made  for  submarine  mine  projects 
for  the  most  important  harbors. 

In  1905  President  Roosevelt  appointed  a  board  of  officers 
and  civilians,  since  known  as  the  Taft  Board,  to  review  the  un- 
finished schedule  of  the  Endicott  Board,  in  the  light  of  more 
recent  inventions  and  discoveries,  affecting  armament  and 
ammunition  and  to  provide  additional  armament. 

About  $175,000,000  has  been  expended  on  the  projects  of 
these  boards.  The  Government  has  depended  almost  entirely 
upon  private  industries  for  the  manufacture  of  armament  and 
accesories  and  ammunition.  This  has  resulted  in  many  new 
industries,  requiring  enormous  capital  and  employing  thousands 
of  men. 

Further  evolution  in  modern  gunnery  and  naval  attack  inci- 
dental to  the  European  war  now  renders  another  modification 
necessary.  Another  board,  officially  designated  the  Board  of 
Review,  is  now  in  session. 

Additional  fortifications  are  now  necessary  due  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  for  the  defense  of  our  Insular 
Possessions. 

Alterations  are  being  made  to  increase  the  area  of  fire  of  guns 
and  mortars  already  emplaced.  New  guns  of  14-inch  caliber 
and  new  mortars  of  19,000-yards  range  are  now  being  manu- 


Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va. 


Corner  of  operating  room,  radio  section,  Coast  Artillery  School. 
Enlisted  men's  department 


Classes  in  the  Enlisted  Men's  School.     Coast  Artillery  Corps,  Fort 

Monroe,  Va. 


THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS  157 

factured.  The  16-inch  gun  is  being  prepared  for  mounting  as 
part  of  the  Canal  Zone  defense. 

Practically  every  important  seaport  in  the  United  States, 
Hawaii,  Philippines,  and  entrances  to  the  Canal  Zone,  are 
fortified.  Mortars  and  gun  batteries  are  grouped  and  placed  so 
that  one  battery  commander  can  command  several  guns.  Each 
fort  and  battery  are  named  after  distinguished  individuals, 
generally  an  American  officer,  as  Fort  Grant;  Battery  Upton. 
Batteries  of  similar  calibre  are  grouped  into  fire  commands  and 
fort  commands  under  high  ranking  officers.  All  fire  and  fort 
commands  of  a  particular  harbor  defense  are  called  a  Coast  De- 
fense Command  under  a  Coast  Defense  Commander.  There 
are  30  Coast  Defense  Commands,  16  of  which  have  regimental 
bands.  Coast  Defense  Commands  are  grouped  into  Coast  Ar- 
tillery Districts,  commanded  usually  by  Brigadier  Generals. 
There  are  five  such  districts,  two  on  the  Atlantic  and  one  on  the 
Pacific,  one  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  one  in  the  Philippines. 

To  furnish  one  relief  for  the  seacoast  batteries  and  submarine 
projects  already  installed  1,942  officers  and  47,000  men  are  re- 
quired. In  actual  hostilities,  such  as  prevailed  in  the  Darda- 
nelles for  many  months,  two  reliefs  would  be  required.  The 
policy  of  the  War  Department  contemplates  that  the  regular 
Coast  Artillery  force  shall  man  all  of  the  batteries  and  mine 
projects  beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the  United  States  and 
all  of  the  mine  projects  and  one-half  of  the  batteries  in  the 
United  States,  the  other  half  being  manned  by  National  Guard 
Coast  Artillery.  The  National  Guard  Coast  Artillery  thus  far 
has  supplied  only  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  its  quota. 

To  maintain  coast  fortifications  in  even  a  semi-efficient  con- 
dition is  a  very  expensive  proposition  both  as  to  ammunition 
and  personnel. 

Service  in  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  is  technical,  scientific 
and  mathematical.  It  calls  for  a  high  grade  of  intelligence  and 
special  training  in  mastering  the  complex  details  of  range  find- 
ing, spotting,  handling  of  high-explosives,  electrical  and  mechan- 


158  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ical  apparatus,  precision  in  adjusting,  observing  and  calculating 
instruments,  loading,  planting,  and  firing  of  submarine  mines, 
testing  of  cables,  installation  and  upkeep  of  extensive  under- 
ground systems  of  telephone,  signaling,  radio,  and  semaphore 
sets,  power  plants,  storage  batteries,  etc. 
The  defense  of  our  coast  line  includes: 

1.  Permanent  fortifications  and  submarine  defenses  manned 
and  operated  by  Coast  Artillery  troops. 

2.  Semi-permanent   fortifications   and   field   works   for   the 
protection  of  the  permanent  fortifications  against  capture  by 
small  raiding  parties  landed  from  ships,  manned  and  operated 
by  Coast  Artillery  supports.     They  may  be  troops  of  the  Coast 
Artillery  Corps  or  of  the  mobile  Army. 

3.  Mobile  troops  to  resist  the  landing  of  large  bodies  of  troops 
near  cities  and  fortified  harbors  and  for  the  defense  of  strong 
semi-permanent    work   on   interior   lines.     These   troops   are 
known  as  coast  guards. 

Permanent  fortifications  comprise  three  distinct  elements  of 
armament  or  weapons  of  defense: 

(a)  The  direct-fire  rifles  of  3-inch  to  16-inch  calibre  mounted 
enbarbette  or  on  disappearing  carriages. 

(6)  Mortars  for  high  angle  fire. 

(c)  Submarine  mines  for  underwater  attack  upon  the  un- 
protected hulls. 

When  the  warships  of  an  enemy  undertake  to  enter  our  sea- 
ports and  harbors,  the  Coast  Artillery,  therefore,  will  be  ex- 
pected to  attack  their  side  armor  at  the  water  line  with  high- 
power,  disappearing  rifles  and  armor-piercing  shot;  from  above, 
upon  their  decks,  by  mortar  shells  filled  with  explosive;  and 
from  beneath,  with  submarine  mines  containing  200  pounds 
of  high  explosives,  whereas,  the  attacking  fleet  has  only  direct- 
fire  rifles  with  which  to  reply. 

Keen  scientific  rivalry  prevails  between  the  makers  of  projec- 
tiles, powder,  and  armor.  This  constantly  advances  the  effi- 
ciency of  modern  armament.  The  projectile  maker  endeavors 


THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS  159 

to  produce  a  projectile  of  such  tensile  strength,  density,  and 
toughness  as  will  perforate  the  thickest  armor  at  battle  ranges 
without  shattering  or  fragmenting.  To  hurl  cast-iron  shot  at 
the  side  armor  of  warships  is  a  waste  of  both  powder  and  pro- 
jectile and  a  sacrifice  of  morale.  Such  a  projectile  would 
scarcely  mar  the  surface  of  the  armor. 

To  build  a  projectile  of  the  desired  perforating  potentiality 
and  not  have  the  necessary  quality  of  powder  to  impart  to  it 
the  required  velocity  to  perforate  the  armor  attacked  indicates 
another  critical  stage  in  this  scientific  contest.  The  armor 
maker  is  ever  striving  to  improve  the  quality  of  his  armor  so 
that  a  lesser  thickness  and  weight  will  assure  the  desired  pro- 
tection to  the  vitals  of  the  ship.  Ten  inches  of  the  best  armor  to- 
day has  greater  power  of  resistance  than  16  inches  of  the  best 
armor  ten  years  ago.  A  12-inch  forged  steel  projectile  costs 
about  $200. 

This  great  rivalry  taxing  as  it  does  the  greatest  scientific 
minds  of  the  nation  continually  promotes  scientific  research 
and  development  thus  materially  advancing  the  iron  and  steel 
industries.  Mankind  is  being  benefited  in  countless  ways 
through  the  rigid  specifications  established  in  Army  and  Navy 
contracts  and  through  the  scientific  methods  followed  in  testing 
quality  of  articles  delivered. 

The  smokeless  powder  used  as  a  propelling  charge  in  seacoast 
guns  costs  about  60  cents  per  pound.  The  charge  for  a  12-inch 
mortar  is  about  25  to  50  pounds,  the  area  of  fire  being  divided 
into  several  zones,  with  a  minimum  and  maximum  range  to 
each,  depending  on  the  variation  and  elevation  from  45  degrees 
to  70  degrees.  The  weight  of  powder  charge  for  the  14-inch 
gun  is  about  600  pounds  in  order  to  give  its  1400  pound  projectile 
an  initial  velocity  of  about  2,300  feet  per  second,  at  elevations 
not  exceeding  15  degrees.  The  time  of  flight  of  the  mortar 
projectile  for  extreme  ranges  exceeds  75  seconds,  but  for  the 
direct-fire  rifle  does  not  exceed  34  seconds.  The  projectile 
of  a  direct-fire  rifle  is  traveling  at  the  rate  of  about  25  miles 


160  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

per  minute  when  it  leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  that  cf  a 
mortar  about  twelve  miles  per  minute. 

There  has  been  developed  at  the  Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort 
Monroe,  Virginia,  a  camera  with  shutter  operating  so  instan- 
taneously (-sinnr  °f  a  second)  that  projectiles  can  be  photo- 
graphed while  emerging  from  the  muzzle  and  at  short  distances 
beyond. 

There  is  no  question  in  target  practice  as  to  where 
the  massive  projectiles  strike,  since  a  great  column  of  water  is 
dashed  upward  to  a  height  of  two  hundred  feet  or  more  and 
plainly  seen  for  several  miles.  Many  remarkable  long-range 
firing  records  have  been  made  the  past  few  years,  indicating 
that  our  system  of  fire  direction  and  control  is  excellent. 

Probably  the  most  efficient  and  economical  weapon  of  coast 
defense  is  the  modified  12-inch  mortar,  recently  constructed 
by  the  Ordnance  Department,  to  attack  the  decks  of  warships. 

In  1879  Lieut.  General  Nelson  A.  Miles  was  an  observer  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  War.  A  shore  battery  of  small  caliber  mortars 
dropped  a  few  projectiles  on  the  decks  of  enemy  warships  at 
anchor.  The  damage  was  slight  and  the  incident  passed  over  by 
other  military  observers  as  purely  accidental  and  of  no  military 
importance.  General  Miles,  however,  reported  this  incident  as 
foreshadowing  a  new  form  of  attack  from  shore  batteries.  Our 
Ordnance  Department  was  already  at  work  improving  the  crude 
type  of  Civil  War  mortar.  Eventually  the  12-inch  breech-load- 
ing rifled  mortar,  capable  of  throwing  a  700-pound  projectile 
15,291  yards  at  45  degrees  elevation,  was  developed.  Re- 
cently a  modified  12-inch  mortar  has  been  developed  which 
with  a  700-pound  projectile  has  an  extreme  range  of  19,000 
yards  and  a  maximum  time  of  flight  of  75  seconds.  These 
mortars  are  placed  in  well-protected  pits,  four  mortars  to  a  pit, 
two  or  four  pits  constituting  a  battery  or  mortar-fire  command. 
This  mortar  is  designed  to  attack  the  least  vulnerable  part  of 
the  warship,  its  deck. 

Brigadier  General  Henry  L.  Abbott,  Retired,  as  Chief  of  the 


THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS  161 

Corps  of  Engineers,  had  much  to  do  with  the  adoption  of  this 
weapon.  It  had  been  the  naval  practice  for  belligerent  ships  to 
engage  in  action  by  dropping  anchor  and  opening  broad-side  fire 
on  shore  batteries  or  other  ships .  General  Abbott  contended  that 
with  batteries  of  8  or  16  mortars  so  placed  as  to  send  showers 
of  heavy  projectiles  into  the  air  in  the  direction  of  belligerent 
ships  at  anchor,  at  least  a  ten  per  cent,  probability  of  hits  would 
prevail.  The  wooden  decks  of  warships  would  be  no  match 
for  such  projectiles,  which  passing  through  into  the  vitals  of  a 
ship  would  put  it  out  of  action  and  probably  sink  it.  It  was 
not  contemplated  that  this  high-angle  fire  could  be  used  econ- 
omically at  moving  targets. 

The  proof  firing  and  actual  tests  of  mortar  fire  so  completely 
confirmed  these  views  as  to  cause  naval  powers  to  abandon  this 
form  of  naval  action  in  favor  of  attempts  to  run  by  the  shore 
batteries  at  full  speed.  It  then  devolved  upon  the  Coast  Artil- 
lery Corps  to  develop  a  system  of  fire  direction  and  control  to 
utilize  high-angle  fire  of  mortars  at  moving  targets.  This  has 
been  accomplished  to  a  remarkable  degree.  It  is  now  possible 
to  fire  mortars  at  thirty -second  intervals  with  great  accuracy. 
A  natural  result  in  battleship  design  has  been  the  abandonment 
of  wooden  decks  hi  favor  of  three,  four  and  five  inches  of  deck 
armor.  All  of  the  warships  engaged  in  the  naval  actions  of  the 
Spanish-American  War  had  wooden  decks.  Now  every  modern 
warship  in  the  world  has  armor-protected  decks,  undoubtedly 
a  primary  result  of  the  development  of  mortar  fire  by  the 
United  States  Coast  Artillery  Corps. 

During  the  routine  drill  at  the  guns  preliminary  to  annual 
target  practice  companies  are  tested  by  sub-caliber  practice  at 
moving  targets,  at  short  ranges.  For  3-inch  guns  a  30-caliber 
gun  is  rigidly  fixed  within  the  powder  chamber  and  is  loaded 
and  fired  simulating  service  target  practice.  For  larger  rifles 
and  mortars  one-pounder  and  fifteen-pounder  sub-caliber  guns 
are  used.  Service  target  practice  is  required  annually  for  each 
battery,  fire  and  coast  defense  command  unit.  Owing  to  the 


162  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

great  concussion  from  heavy  gun  fire  and  the  damage  liable  to 
property  and  to  invalid  persons  living  near  the  batteries  in  cities, 
it  is  necessary  for  such  organizations  to  conduct  target  practice 
at  some  isolated  fortification. 

Many  individual  soldiers  of  varying  degrees  of  training, 
education,  and  aptitude  make  up  the  gun  crews.  This  and  many 
other  elements  contribute  to  the  improbability  of  making 
perfect  scores  at  target  practice.  The  distance  and  direction 
of  the  target  and  its  speed  must  be  constantly  determined. 
Each  gun  must  be  aimed  at  a  point  in  advance  of  the  moving 
target  and  be  fired  at  a  predetermined  second  of  time  to  assure 
that  the  target  and  projectile  will  reach  the  same  point  simul- 
taneously. Range  tables  must  be  computed  for  each  particular 
lot  of  smokeless  powder.  This  is  done  from  data  obtained  from 
the  Ordnance  Proving  Ground  with  a  testing  machine  called  a 
chronograph. 

These  powerful  weapons  of  defense  hurl  half-ton  projectiles 
with  astonishing  accuracy  at  half -minute  intervals  for  distances 
of  from  three  to  ten  miles.  Accuracy  at  long  ranges  is  accom- 
plished by  bringing  to  the  aid  of  human  vision  the  most  powerful 
observing  telescopes  and  position-finding  apparatus  designed 
by  Coast  Artillery  officers  and  enlisted  men. 

The  barrier  of  water  interposed  between  the  target  and  the 
battery  due  to  the  curvature  of  the  earth,  which  for  a  range  of 
ten  miles  would  be  about  sixty-seven  feet,  must  also  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Partly  to  overcome  this  and  partly  to 
permit  of  a  plunging  fire  upon  deck,  batteries  are  emplaced, 
when  possible,  at  considerable  elevation.  Our  Atlantic  Coast 
line  offers  no  such  natural  strategic  defense  except  at  the 
entrance  to  New  York  harbor  where  elevations  of  about  150 
feet  can  be  utilized. 

The  deviation  of  the  projectile  or  drift  due  to  the  direction 
and  velocity  of  the  wind  and  the  rifling  of  the  gun  must  be  deter- 
mined for  each  shot.  Other  important  factors  are  variation 
in  tide,  temperature  and  density  of  the  atmosphere,  temperature 


1,046-pound  projectiles,  12  in.  mortars,  and  gun  caught  by  camera 
with  -5-uVff  second  exposure 


THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS  163 

of  the  gun,  the  powder  charge  and  the  powder  magazine,  the 
degree  of  uniformity  in  loading,  the  weight,  form  and  density 
of  the  projectile  and  its  diameter  measured  to  3-1000  of  an  inch. 

Each  gun  and  carriage  has  inherent  peculiarities  of  action 
which  must  also  be  understood.  The  wonder  is  that  with  all 
these  known  variables  several  shots  in  succession  from  batteries 
of  two  or  three  guns  can  be  made  to  hit  targets  representing 
only  a  small  section  of  a  battleship.  Very  satisfactory  results 
have  also  been  obtained  by  night  firing,  at  targets  illuminated 
by  60-inch  search  lights. 

With  a  view  to  much  needed  improvements  in  both  search- 
light and  carbons  supplied  by  private  firms,  Capt.  John  C. 
Ohnstad,  C.  A.  C.  Instructor,  Coast  Artillery  School,  was 
assigned  the  special  task  of  developing  the  searchlight  and 
carbons  to  the  highest  possible  state  of  perfection  and  positive 
action. 

His  success  has  revolutionized  the  searchlight  carbon  indus- 
try of  this  country  and  brought  the  searchlight  to  a  degree 
of  perfection  which  had  baffled  the  experts  of  the  largest 
manufacturers  of  these  articles  in  the  United  States  if  not  in  the 
world. 

To-day  American-made  carbons  are  superior  to  European- 
made  carbons  and  are  being  shipped  abroad  in  enormous 
quantities;  whereas  until  recently  foreign-made  carbons  were  in 
demand  in  this  country.  It  has  been  possible  with  the  Ohnstad 
Carbon  to  illuminate  a  target  at  20,000  yards  range  at 
Fort  Mills,  Corregidor  Island,  Manila  Bay,  Philippine  Islands, 
the  best  previous  range  of  illumination  being  12,000  yards. 
The  value  of  this  Army  contribution  to  American  industry 
may  be  better  appreciated  when  it  is  considered  that  in- 
crease of  range  of  illumination  varies  as  the  fourth  power  of  the 
distance. 

In  order  to  better  train  Coast  Artillery  officers  for  their 
various  functions  in  time  of  war  and  to  stimulate  interest  in 
the  methods  of  attack  likely  to  be  used  by  a  hostile  fleet,  a  war 


164  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

game  has  been  developed.  This  war  game  is  set  up  in  a  large 
room  where  it  is  played  under  rules  approximating  war  situa- 
tions, based  upon  the  probability  of  hitting,  rapidity  of  fire, 
changes  in  atmospheric  conditions,  speed  of  the  enemy's  ships, 
and  the  gun  fire  to  be  expected  from  them.  The  equipment 
consists  of  land  and  sea  areas,  miniature  ships,  batteries,  search- 
lights, position-finding  stations,  etc.  Sets  of  miniature  warships 
representing  the  navies  of  the  various  powers  are  provided. 
This  war  game  is  especially  useful  at  fortifications  where  battle- 
ships are  seldom  seen. 

During  the  winter  months  daily  drills  are  held  indoors,  con- 
stituting what  is  known  as  gunners'  instruction,  leading  up  to 
examination  for  rating  as  first  or  second  class  gunners,  which 
carries  an  increase  of  pay. 

Electricity  plays  a  very  important  part  in  Coast  Artillery 
service.  The  non-commissioned  staff  consisting  of  sergeant 
majors,  junior  and  senior  grade,  master  electricians,  engineers, 
firemen,  electrician  sergeants,  first  and  second  class,  master 
gunners,  are  gradually  promoted  from  the  grades  of  private, 
corporal,  and  sergeant,  and  usually  after  a  course  of  instruction 
at  the  Coast  Artillery  School.  They  are  allowed  suitable  mar- 
ried men's  quarters. 

Service  in  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  is  strenuous  though 
attractive  to  those  who  desire  to  live  on  the  seashore  and  to 
receive  a  good  working  knowledge  of  electricity,  mechanics,  and 
engineering  while  serving  an  enlistment  in  the  Army. 

For  the  practical  training  and  education  in  technical  duties 
of  officers  and  enlisted  men  the  Coast  Artillery  School  at  Fort 
Monroe,  Virginia,  is  maintained.  It  is  unexcelled  as  a  tech- 
nical school  of  the  limited  scope  covered  by  its  courses  of  in- 
struction. 

The  regular  course  and  the  advanced  course  for  officers 
are  «ach  completed  in  one  year.  The  courses  embraced  are  as 
follows:  Coast  Artillery  materiel,  gunnery,  artillery  defense, 
land  defense,  explosives,  electrical  engineering,  mechanical 


THE  COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS  165 

and  steam  engineering,  and  submarine  mining.  The  object  of 
the  advanced  and  special  courses  is  to  amplify  for  specially 
selected  officers  the  instruction  and  work  of  the  regular  course, 
with  a  view  to  improving  their  qualifications  as  instructors, 
preparing  them  for  duty  at  the  Army  War  College,  and  fitting 
them  for  duties  of  the  General  Staff  of  the  Army.  One  or  more 
graduates  of  the  school  attend  the  Boston  School  of  Technology 
each  year. 

The  courses  for  enlisted  men  at  the  Coast  Artillery  School 
embrace  instruction  in  artillery,  electricity,  mechanics,  radio- 
telegraphy  and  administration  or  clerical  work.  The  yearly 
attendance  is  about  ninety-five. 

The  Director  of  the  enlisted  men's  department  is  an  exam- 
ining officer  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  for  the  examina- 
tion of  students  in  radio-telegraphy  who  attain  the  necessary 
speed  for  commercial  license. 

It  is  believed  that  no  other  educational  institution  in  the 
world  attempts  to  cover  as  much  ground  in  the  same  period  of 
time  as  officers  and  enlisted  men  are  required  to  cover  at  these 
schools. 

The  Chief  of  Coast  Artillery  in  his  annual  report  for  1915 
recommends  that  legislation  be  sufficiently  elastic  to  authorize 
the  President  to  increase  at  any  time  the  Coast  Artillery  forces 
by  the  number  of  officers  and  men  necessary  to  man  any  new 
fortifications  that  may  from  time  to  time  be  authorized  by  Con- 
gress. 

With  reference  to  the  use  of  large  caliber  howitzers  and  guns 
he  states:  "Inasmuch  as  there  has  been  some  discussion  as  to 
mounting  16-inch  and  even  17-inch  guns  afloat,  it  is  a  question 
whether  the  dimensions  of  our  primary  shore  guns  should  not 
be  made  of  larger  caliber  than  16  inches.  The  advantages  that 
come  from  increasing  calibers  are  not  only  those  due  t«  greater 
striking  energy,  greater  accuracy  of  fire,  and  greater  perforation 
of  armor,  but  also  those  due  to  increased  weight  of  explosives 
carried  in  the  cavity  of  the  shell.  The  weight  of  the  explosive 


166  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

carried  increases  as  the  cube  of  the  diameter,  but  experiments 
have  shown  that  the  destructive  effects  caused  by  the  explosion 
of  a  high  explosive  shell  charge,  increases  in  greater  ratio  than 
the  cube.  It  will,  therefore,  be  understood  that  an  exceptional 
advantage  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  fact  alone  that  the  weight 
of  the  shell  charge  is  increased.  The  destructiveness  of  the  forty- 
two  centimeter  and  other  large  shell  guns  used  by  the  Germans 
in  the  land  warfare  in  Europe  have  clearly  brought  out  this  fact. 
It  was  on  these  considerations  that  the  Chief  of  Coast  Artillery 
recommended  that  our  present  system  of  guns  mounted  in  fixed 
positions  should  be  modified  by  providing  a  new  type  of  arma- 
ment that  would  involve  the  use  of  howitzers  of  the  largest 
practicable  shell  capacity,  one  type  to  be  mounted  on  railroad 
trucks  so  designed  as  to  permit  the  howitzers  to  be  fired  there- 
from and  the  other  of  the  maximum  size  practicable  for  wagon- 
road  transportation. 

"The  effectiveness  of  the  Hammond  radio-controlled  torpedo 
appears  to  have  been  well  established.  The  Board  of  Ordnance 
and  Fortifications  recommended  favorably  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  as  to  the  merits  of  this  invention.  The  Secretary  recom- 
mended to  Congress  that  the  rights  of  the  inventor  be  acquired 
to  the  end  that  this  new  type  of  weapon  may  be  installed  in  a 
few  of  our  more  important  coast  defenses." 


In  order  to  maintain  our  peace  and  make  certain  the  security  of  our  people 
within  our  own  borders,  the  country  must  have  not  only  adequate,  but  thorough 
and  complete  national  defense,  ready  for  any  emergency.  We  must  have  a 
sufficient  and  effective  regular  army  and  a  provision  for  ample  reserves,  already 
drilled  and  disciplined,  who  can  be  called  at  once  to  the  colors  when  the  hour  of 
danger  comes. 

We  must  have  a  navy  so  strong  and  so  well  proportioned  ana  equipped  so 
thoroughly  ready  and  prepared  that  no  enemy  can  gain  command  of  the  sea 
and  effect  a  landing  in  force  on  either  our  Western  or  our  Eastern  coast.  To 
secure  these  results  we  must  have  a  coherent  and  continuous  policy  of  national 
defense,  which  even  in  these  perilous  days  the  Democratic  Party  has  utterly 
failed  to  develop,  but  which  we  promise  to  give  to  the  country. — From  Republi- 
can Party  Platform. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  SUBMARINE  DEFENSE  OF  HARBORS 

THE  Russo-Japanese  War  and  the  present  European  War 
have  demonstrated  that  the  most  deadly  weapons  of  seacoast 
and  naval  warfare  are  the  submarine  mine  and  torpedo.  The 
greatest  naval  losses  of  both  wars  have  been  the  sinking  of  war- 
ships and  merchant  vessels  by  mines  and  torpedoes.  It  was 
the  blowing  up  of  the  battleship  Maine  in  Havana  Harbor, 
February  15,  1898,  by  a  submarine  explosion  that  precipitated 
our  war  with  Spam. 

Bushnell  invented  the  submarine  mine  in  1777.  Fulton 
improved  it  in  1812.  Colt  added  the  electric  element  in  1863. 
Brigadier  General  Henry  L.  Abbott,  U.  S.  A.  Retired,  developed 
the  electrical  and  other  features  and  applied  them  to  a  complete 
and  practical  system  of  mine  defense.  Our  Coast  Artillery 
Corps  has  further  perfected  its  use  since  1901  to  the  present 
efficient  system  of  submarine  defense  of  harbors. 

A  single  submarine  mine  exploded  at  the  proper  time  will 
disable  or  even  sink  the  largest  battleship.  The  Coast  Artillery 
of  the  Turkish  army  in  closing  and  keeping  closed  the  Darda- 
nelles was  pitted  against  the  persistent  and  combined  attack  of 
the  allied  fleets  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia.  This  will 
probably  go  down  in  history  as  the  most  effective  instance 
of  seacoast  and  submarine  mine  defense  thus  simulating 
what  should  be  expected  of  our  coast  defenses  should  our  sea- 
coast  and  harbors  be  subjected  to  naval  and  land  attack. 
Our  Atlantic  seashore,  however,  offers  no  strategical  barriers  such 
as  those  at  the  Dardanelles  and  Gibraltar. 

167 


168  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Mines  are  principally  used  in  defensive  operations  within 
harbors,  whereas  torpedoes  are  primarily  an  element  of  offen- 
sive warfare  by  warships.  Mines  are  immobile  and  lie  in  wait 
for  the  oncoming  warships,  whereas  the  torpedo  is  a  cigar- 
shaped  form  of  weapon  provided  with  a  propelling  force  by 
which  it  can  be  propelled  under  water  in  the  direction  of  the 
enemy's  ship  at  about  forty  miles  per  hour  for  several  thousand 
yards  to  be  exploded  upon  impact  with  any  object  in  its  path. 
The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  explosive  is  practically  the 
same  in  both  the  torpedo  and  the  submarine  mine  (about  200 
pounds),  either  gun  cotton  or  trotol. 

In  the  United  States  the  torpedo  is  a  naval  weapon  carried 
on  all  types  of  warships  from  submarines  to  battleships  and  the 
submarine  mine  is  a  weapon  of  harbor  defense  manned  by  the 
Coast  Artillery  Corps.  The  Navy  is  also  equipped  with  subma- 
rine mines  which  can  be  strewn  in  the  path  of  pursuing  warships 
to  be  exploded  by  contact.  Naval  mines  ordinarily  are  uncon- 
trollable and  are  dangerous  alike  to  friend  and  foe  and  neutral 
shipping  and,  therefore,  are  to  be  used  only  as  a  last  resort. 

The  submarine  defense  of  harbors  is  a  confidential  military 
problem.  The  general  features  of  our  system  are  known,  how- 
ever, by  all  nations.  American  citizens  are  welcome  at  all  of 
our  fortifications  in  time  of  peace  and  can  receive  a  very  good 
idea  of  this  and  other  weapons  without  involving  the  disclosure 
of  the  confidential  features. 

The  great  force  of  mine  explosions  is  indicated  in  these  illus- 
trations. In  the  first  photograph  the  mine  was  near  the  surface 
of  the  water.  A  spire  of  water  was  shot  upward  about  three 
hundred  feet  just  before  the  tiny  target,  which  extends  seven 
and  a  half  feet  above  the  water,  reached  the  plotted  position 
of  the  mine.  In  the  second  photograph  the  mine  was  quite 
deep  in  the  water  and  the  explosion  gave  a  mushroom-like  up- 
heaval completely  obscuring  the  target.  The  third  is  the  most 
common  type  of  explosion,  an  enormous  volume  of  water  being 
thrown  upward  about  fifty  feet  from  a  crater  about  ten  to 


SUBMARINE  DEFENSE  OF  HARBORS 


169 


fifteen  yards  in  diameter.  The  photographers  in  each  case 
were  in  an  open  boat  about  four  hundred  yards  distant  from 
the  explosion.  These  explosions  were  made  under  direction  of 
the  author  as  Mine  Commander  of  the  Narrows  Mine  Com- 
mand, Fort  Wadsworth,  New  York  harbor  in  1911  and  1912. 

The  term  "name  field"  is 
used  to  designate  the  water 
area  in  which  groups  of  mines 
are  planted  in  the  channels  and 
connected  with  a  common  shore 
station  called  the  mining  case- 
mate. 

Briefly,  our  system  of  sub- 
marine mines  consists  of  one  or 
more  groups  of  mines  placed 
across  the  harbor  channel  in  the 
course  of  incoming  warships 
and  within  protection  of  the  sea- 
coast  batteries.  Each  mine  is 
held  in  place  at  the  proper  sub- 
mergence by  a  heavy  cast-iron 
anchor,  attached  to  the  mooring 
cable.  A  specially  designed 
steamer  called  the  "mine 
planter "  takes  the  mines  out  from  shore  loaded  and  ready  for 
planting.  A  trained  detail  from  the  mine  command  plants  the 
mines  at  the  proper  distance  apart,  one  at  a  time.  A  glance  at 
the  diagram  will  give  a  better  understanding  of  the  successive 
steps  in  mine  planting  and  exploding. 

The  successive  steps  of  planting  and  operating  a  mine  field 
are  as  follows : 

The  reels  of  suomarine  cable  weighing  about  four  tons,  each 
containing  about  half  a  mile  of  cable,  are  taken  aboard  the 
mine  planter  and  placed  on  cable  reel  frames.  The  end  of  the 
first  length  of  cable  is  passed  ashore  and  through  the  under- 


Mti»  ami  Diatribut* 


170  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ground  entrance  to  the  casemate  where  each  of  the  single  con- 
ductor cables  is  connected  to  an  operating  board  and  system  of 
switches  for  sending  the  electric  currents  out  through  the  cable 
to  the  respective  mines.  Mines  are  exploded  by  an  electric  cur- 
rent passing  through  a  commercial  type  of  electric  primer. 

The  mine  planter  steams  slowly  out  toward  the  mine  field,  the 
cable  being  unreeled  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  When  the  end  of 
a  reel  of  cable  is  reached  this  end  is  lowered  over  the  bow  of  the 
planter  into  a  yawl  boat.  The  end  of  the  next  reel  is  likewise 
placed  in  this  yawl  boat  which  serves  as  a  float  on  which  the  two 
cable  ends  are  joined  by  water-tight  joints  and  a  strong  junction 
box  and  then  lowered  to  the  bottom.  When  the  mine  planter  has 
laid  the  necessary  lengths  of  cable  for  a  group  of  mines  the  ocean 
end  is  placed  on  a  motor  power  boat  equipped  as  a  float,  called 
the  Distribution  Box  boat  or  "D.  B."  boat.  On  it  each  of  the 
single  conductor  cables  for  the  group  of  mines  is  in  turn  securely 
joined  to  its  corresponding  unit  of  the  multiple  cable  by  a  water- 
tight joint  and  through  a  large,  heavy  junction  box.  These 
cables  all  bound  into  one  massive  cable  are  insulated  from  each 
other  and  the  whole  is  protected  by  a  jute  and  wire  covering 
called  armor  to  protect  it  from  the  elements  of  the  sea  and  from 
marauders.  One  harbor  may  require  $100,000  worth  of  sub- 
marine cable. 

The  planter  then  returns  to  the  mine  wharf  and  takes  aboard 
the  mines  which  have  been  loaded  and  tested.  When  every- 
thing is  in  readiness  the  planter  runs  slowly  past  the  D.  B. 
boat  casting  off  the  mine  cables  in  their  proper  order.  When 
the  submergence  of  each  mine  has  been  determined  the  mine 
buoy  is  removed.  When  all  mines  have  been  planted  and  con- 
nected with  the  main  cable  the  boats  return  leaving  no  visible 
trace  of  the  submerged  mines. 

The  mine  case  is  made  by  welding  together  two  galvanized 
steel  hemispheres,  32  inches  in  diameter.  If  the  water  is  very 
deep  and  there  is  a  strong  current  or  tide  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
sert a  cylinder  between  each  hemisphere  to  give  the  mine  suffi- 


Sizes  of  mine  cases 


Mine  and  anchor  ready  for  command 
"Let  Go" 


A  group  of  mines,  cable,  and  anchors 
ready  for  mine  planter 


Copyright  by  Edwin  Levick 

This  submarine  mine  was  ex- 
ploded near  the  surface  of  the 
water  and  cast  a  spire  of  water 
to  a  height  of  about  304  ft. 


"  Mushroom "   submarine   mine  ex- 
plosion 


Typical  mine  explosion.     This  mine  was  deep  in  the  water,  and  if 
in  contact  with  a  battleship  would  have  sunk  it 


SUBMARINE  DEFENSE  OF  HARBORS          171 

cient  buoyancy  to  keep  it  from  being  depressed  far  beneath  the 
surface.  The  water  over  the  mine  case  has  the  same  effect  as 
tamping  dirt  over  a  stick  of  dynamite  placed  in  a  hole  drilled  in 
a  rock  or  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  A  mine  placed  several  feet  under 
water  has  the  additional  advantage  of  coming  in  contact  with 
the  hull  of  a  warship  beneath  the  line  of  armor  protection  and 
nearest  the  vitals  of  the  ship.  This  submergence  also  obscures 
the  mine  from  view. 

A  recognized  characteristic  of  practically  all  explosives  is 
that  they  are  harmless  when  ignited  in  open  ah-,  but  very  de- 
structive when  confined  in  a  projectile,  mine  case,  or  torpedo. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  Admiral  of  a  fleet  hesitates  to 
take  his  warships  into  water  area  which  he  has  every  reason  to 
believe  is  defended  by  submarine  mines,  the  position  of  which 
he  cannot  know  and  any  one  of  which  may  sink  his  largest 
battleship. 

The  planting  and  exploding  of  mines  at  the  right  time  and 
with  precision  is  the  most  difficult  problem  of  the  Coast  Artillery 
Corps.  The  mathematical  features  of  this  problem  are  most 
exacting.  In  determining  the  proper  radius  of  the  spherical 
mine  case  to  maintain  proper  submergence  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  consideration  the  depth  of  water,  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent and  tide,  depressing  effect  of  mooring  ropes  and  cables,  at 
varying  stages,  weight  of  explosives,  mooring  rope,  and  other 
cables,  drifting  debris,  weight  of  mine  case,  etc. 

Mine  planting  is  a  most  interesting  and  fascinating  work  and 
calls  for  superior  skill,  technical  knowledge,  courage,  and  intelli- 
gence on  the  part  of  all  concerned.  Although  the  explosives 
used  are  the  most  powerful  known,  no  member  of  our  forty-four 
mine  companies  has  been  killed  through  premature  explosion 
in  a  period  of  fifteen  years  that  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  has 
been  in  charge  of  this  weapon  of  defense. 

Mine  planting  must  be  rapidly  accomplished  with  consum- 
mate skill  under  the  watchful  eye  of  the  Mine  Commander  and 
his  assistants.  The  planter  is  provided  with  two  sets  of  davits 


172  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

on  the  port  and  starboard  quarters  for  swinging  the  loaded  mine 
and  anchor  clear  of  the  planter  ready  for  the  command  "  Let 
go."  When  the  mine  cases  are  properly  joined  to  their  respec- 
tive cables  they  are  in  turn  clamped  to  then*  respective  anchors. 
Then  the  anchors  are  picked  up  and  swung  clear  by  the  forward 
or  anchor  davit,  each  being  suspended  and  handled  with  a  differ- 
ential triplex  block  and  chain.  The  chain  carries  a  patent 
tripping  hook  with  line  attached  to  be  held  and  tripped  by  a 
soldier  standing  near  the  davits  at  the  command  "Let  go." 
Mine  anchors  weigh  2,000  to  5,000  pounds.  Automatic  anchors 
are  now  supplied  which  can  be  adjusted  to  give  any  desired  sub- 
mergence. 


"It  is  my  earnest  wish  and  prayer  that  the  people  of  this  country  shall 
awaken  to  the  responsibility  and  duty  that  confronts  them,  and  that  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States  representing  the  people  will  see  their  duty  clearly  in 
the  premises  by  immediately  enacting  into  law  measures  that  will  make  of  our 
country  one  that  we  can  be  proud  of.  Let  our  Army  and  our  Navy  be  equal  to 
the  wealth  and  power  of  our  country  and  to  its  needs.  We  have  21,000  miles 
of  seacoast  to  defend;  we  have  the  Philippines;  we  have  the  Hawaiian  Islands; 
we  have  the  Panama  Canal,  and  so  forth,  to  protect.  Let  us  have  the  guns, 
fortifications,  and  the  trained  officers,  and  men  that  we  need,  whatever  the 
expense  may  be.  It  will  be  cheap  in  the  end,  whatever  the  cost  is,  because  if 
we  come  to  war  with  a  first-class  power,  such  as  we  will  some  of  these  days,  the 
amount  of  money  it  would  cost  us  to  organize  volunteer  armies  and  navies,  get 
the  equipment,  guns,  and  so  forth,  would  far  exceed  all  that  we  would  spend  in 
the  gradual  increasing  and  making  efficient  a  splendid  Army  and  a  splendid 
Navy." — Representative  L.  C.  DYEB,  of  Missouri,  Commander-in-Chief, 
United  Spanish  War  Veterans. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  MILITIA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE 
NATIONAL  GUARD 

CONGRESS  passed  the  first  militia  law  in  1792  entitled: 
"An  act  to  more  effectually  provide  for  the  national  defense  by 
establishing  a  uniform  militia  throughout  the  United  States." 
The  requirements  of  this  law  included  compulsory  enlistment 
and  performance  of  military  duty  on  the  part  of  every  able- 
bodied  male  citizen  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five. 
It  required  that  each  person  enrolled  should,  at  his  own  expense, 
be  constantly  provided  with  arms,  ammunition,  uniform,  and 
equipment,  and  that  mounted  officers  and  enlisted  cavalrymen 
should  furnish  horses  at  least  12|  hands  high.  No  uniformity 
as  to  bore  of  rifles,  kind  of  equipment,  color  or  style  of  uniform 
was  prescribed.  "Few  armed  themselves  as  was  intended  and 
on  training  days,  if  the  testimony  of  witnesses  can  be  relied 
upon,  more  reported  shouldering  cornstalks  than  rifles  and  such 
a  ludicrous  appearance  was  presented  that  the  entire  system 
soon  became  a  farce.  Because  the  law  carried  no  appropriation 
for  proper  arms  and  equipment,  the  training  days  became  more 
and  more  useless,  and  the  various  states,  realizing  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  militia  thus  organized,  gradually  assumed  the  power 
of  legislating  for  it,  finally  dealing  with  it  as  a  state  force,  which  is 
really  the  organization  it  is  considered  to  be  to-day." 

If  you  are  a  male  citizen  of  the  United  States,  eighteen  to 
forty-five  years  of  age,  and  there  are  21,000,000  of  you,  you  are 
a  member  of  the  United  States  Militia.  You  are  liable  for  ac- 
tive service  in  time  of  war  unless  exemption  is  granted  you  for 
disability  or  religious  belief. 

173 


174  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  constitution  and  Congress  thus  define  and  interpret  the 
military  obligation  of  citizenship.  Millions  of  our  citizens  pass 
through  this  period  of  manhood  practically  unconscious  of  this 
military  obligation  because  Congress  has  never  required  any  form 
of  universal  military  training  or  service.  We  are  all  more  or  less 
familiar  concerning  the  organized  militia,  known  as  the  National 
Guard. 

The  National  Guard  is  now  undergoing  very  radical  reorgan- 
ization and  expansion  to  meet  the  requirements  of  active  ser- 
vice on  the  Mexican  border  and  the  Act  of  Congress,  June  3, 
1916,  by  which  the  authorized  strength  is  expected  to  reach 
800  guardsmen  for  each  congressman  and  United  States  senator, 
or  approximately  425,000  within  the  next  few  years.  The  prin- 
cipal features  of  this  new  legislation  are: 

1.  Federalization  and  expansion  of  the  National  Guard  as  a 
part  of  the  land  forces  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Federal  pay  for  routine  drills  and  instruction  equal  to 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  corresponding  grades  in  the  Army. 

3.  War  Department  regulation  of  drills  and  encampments. 
(Forty-eight  one  and  one-half  hour  drills  and  15  days  encamp- 
ment annually). 

4.  Organization,  equipment,  training,  discipline  and  physical 
examination  to  conform  to  the  Regular  Army  standard. 

5.  Officers  to  be  appointed  under  the  direction  of  the  War 
Department. 

6.  National  guardsmen  employed  by  United  States  to  receive 
leave  of  absence  without  loss  of  pay  while  attending  encamp- 
ment and  indefinite  leave  of  absence  when  in  active  service. 

7.  Attendance   at   Military   Service   Schools,   except   West 
Point. 

This  act  changes  the  designation  of  the  Division  of  Militia 
Affairs  to  the  Militia  Bureau  of  the  War  Department  and  con- 
fers upon  the  Militia  Bureau  the  status  held  by  other  bureaus 
of  the  War  Department.  The  Chief  of  the  Militia  Bureau  is 
charged  with  the  transaction  of  all  business  pertaining  to  the 


THE  MILITIA  AND  NATIONAL  GUARD        175 

National  Guard  and  the  unorganized  militia  of  the  United 
States. 

The  jurisdiction  of  this  Bureau  embraces  all  administrative 
duties  involving  the  organization,  armament,  instruction,  equip- 
ment, discipline,  training,  inspection  and  payment  of  the  Na- 
tional Guard;  the  conduct  of  camps  of  instruction  of  the  National 
Guard,  and  the  administrative  duties  connected  with  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  National  Guard  for  participation  in  field  exercises 
and  maneuvers  of  the  Regular  Army;  the  mobilization  of  the 
National  Guard  in  time  of  peace;  and  all  matters  which  do  not 
under  existing  laws,  regulations,  orders  or  practice  come  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  General  Staff  or  any  division  or  bureau  of 
the  War  Department. 

The  Governors  of  states  are  the  commanders-in-chief  of  their 
respective  National  Guard  organizations.  They  appoint  Ad- 
jutant Generals  and  staff  officers  for  administrative  purposes. 
When  the  National  Guard  is  drafted  into  the  Federal  Service 
pursuant  to  authorization  of  Congress  to  repel  invasion,  or 
insurrection,  or  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  the  various 
organizations  lose  their  identity  as  state  troops  and  are  entirely 
under  the  direction  of  the  War  Department.  It  may  be  called 
into  Federal  Service  for  the  purpose  mentioned  without  draft 
and  upon  termination  of  such  service  revert  to  its  status  as 
state  troops.  Congress  in  July,  1916,  authorized  the  President 
to  use  the  National  Guard  beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

Service  in  the  National  Guard  is  by  voluntary  enlistment  for  a 
period  of  six  years,  three  in  actual  service  and  three  in  the  re- 
serve. Officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  from  the  Regular 
Army  are  detailed  as  instructor-inspectors  and  sergeant  in- 
structors. 

The  home  station  of  a  militia  organization  is  known  as  its 
mobilization  camp.  The  places  of  assembly  when  war  is  im- 
minent or  for  joint  operations  are  known  as  concentration 
camps. 


176  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Department  Commanders  have  charge  of  all  matters  per- 
taining to  mobilization. 

The  War  Department  plan  as  prepared  by  the  Militia  Bureau 
comprising  tactical  organizations  and  distribution  of  a  National 
Guard  force  of  about  400,000  troops  constituting  four  field  armies 
of  sixteen  divisions  each  with  three  additional  cavalry  divisions 
including  three  regiments  of  Regular  Cavalry  is  presented  in  a 
table  in  pouch  of  cover. 

During  the  summer  months  the  mobile  troops  of  the  National 
Guard  participate  in  extensive  maneuvers  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  policy  of  the  War  Department  has  been  to  re- 
strict the  instruction  given  in  the  summer  encampments  to  the 
field  training  of  the  smaller  units  and  in  maneuvers  involving 
regimental  command. 

The  National  Guard  of  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico  were 
called  out  for  active  service  along  the  Mexican  border  by 
the  President  in  May,  1916,  and  of  the  other  States  in  July, 
1916. 

The  manner  in  which  the  State  Militia  has  responded  in 
providing  a  reasonable  number  of  officers  and  enlisted  men  for 
Coast  Artillery  service  is  very  discouraging.  It  was  anticipated 
by  the  War  Department  that  711  officers  and  17,329  enlisted 
men  could  be  thus  obtained.  After  several  years  hard  work 
and  liberal  appropriations  for  equipment  of  state  armories  with 
coast  defense  systems,  there  are  only  about  450  officers  and 
13,500  enlisted  men  enrolled.  In  ten  states  bordering  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  no  Coast  Artillery  Corps  National  Guard  is 
maintained. 

Coast  Artillery  Corps  armories  are  being  completely  equipped 
as  battery  fire  and  battle  commands.  A  rapid-fire  gun,  a 
10-inch  or  12-inch  rifle  and  a  12-inch  mortar  are  mounted 
therein. 

The  Thirteenth  Coast  Artillery  District,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  has 
been  thus  equipped  for  many  years  and  in  addition  maintains 
a  system  of  firing  guns  and  mortars  by  compressed  air,  using 


THE  MILITIA  AND  NATIONAL  GUARD        177 

rubber-nosed,  hollow  projectiles.  During  night  drills  lights  are 
extinguished  and  searchlights  put  in  action,  the  armory  floor 
representing  the  coast  defenses  of  New  York  harbor.  Presently 
a  miniature  papier-mache  battleship  about  twenty-five  feet  long 
appears  in  one  corner,  moving  diagonally  across  the  armory 
floor.  The  searchlight  operator  soon  discovers  this  attempt  to 
run  by  the  shore  batteries  and  directs  the  searchlight  upon  this 
warship.  A  mimic  naval  and  shore  battery  engagement  follows. 
Giant  firecrackers  simulating  13-inch  and  12-inch  guns  are 
exploded  by  electricity  on  the  battleship  and  by  the  shore  bat- 
teries. A  terrific  bombardment  ensues  while  the  5,500  specta- 
tors in  the  galleries  look  on  in  wonder  and  amazement.  Pres- 
ently a  miniature  airship  approaches  and  drops  a  bomb  or  two 
at  the  warship.  By  this  time  the  ship  may  have  reached  a 
submarine  mine,  which  explodes,  shattering  it  into  fragments. 
These  highly  proficient  Coast  Artillerymen  thus  demonstrate 
in  an  educational  manner  the  work  of  all  elements  of  our  coast 
defense  system. 

The  annual  report  of  Major  General  A.  L.  Mills,  U.  S.  A., 
Chief  of  the  Division  of  Militia  Affairs,  for  1915,  contains  the 
following  items  of  general  interest : 

"According  to  the  latest  returns,  the  aggregate  strength  of 
the  organized  militia  is  8,705  commissioned  officers  and  120,693 
enlisted  men,  a  decrease  over  the  year  1914  of  87  officers  and 
an  increase  of  1,442  enlisted  men.  Definite  progress  has  been 
made  during  the  year  toward  the  development  of  the  militia 
into  an  efficient  field  force. 

"There  have  been  gains  during  the  year  in  cavalry,  field 
artillery,  and  machine-gun  units,  especially  in  the  last-named 
element,  but  there  are  still  serious  deficiencies  in  those  respects, 
as  well  as  in  engineers,  signal  and  sanitary  troops.  On  the 
basis  of  coast  defense  requirements,  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
21  per  cent,  in  company  units  38  per  cent,  in  commissioned 
officers  and  57  per  cent,  in  enlisted  men. 

"  Correspondence  courses  for  officers  have  been  carried  on  in  a 


178  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

majority  of  the  states.  An  examination  of  the  reports  of  at- 
tendance at  armory  drills  shows  an  unsatisfactory  condition  in 
this  respect.  Absenteeism  is  a  serious  drawback  to  good 
armory  instruction,  but,  as  effective  means  to  enforce  attend- 
ance are  lacking,  the  fault  must  be  considered  as  inseparable 
from  the  existing, militia  system.  All  reports  agree  as  to  the 
excellence  of  the  instruction  given  at  the  special  camps  of  in- 
struction for  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers.  The 
number  in  attendance  at  these  camps  was  greater  than  ever  be- 
fore. State  camps  of  instruction  were  well  attended  and  the 
programs  of  instruction  were  well  arranged  and  carried  out. 
The  desire  for  good  instruction  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  the 
demand  for  regular  officers  at  state  camps  of  instruction  greatly 
exceeded  the  available  supply. 

"Reports  of  small-arms  target  practice  show  a  very  unsatis- 
factory state  of  instruction.  No  improvement  is  shown  over  the 
previous  year;  if  anything,  a  worse  condition  is  shown  to  exist. 
Preliminary  training  for  target  practice,  including  gallery  prac- 
tice is  generally  neglected.  According  to  the  lowest  standard 
that  could  possibly  be  accepted,  target  practice  can  be  considered 
as  satisfactory  in  only  eight  states  and  is  unsatisfactory  in  all 
the  remaining  states. 

"Estimates  made  by  inspecting  officers  of  the  minimum  that 
would  be  required  for  organizations  to  take  the  field  as  an 
effective  force,  reckoning  from  the  date  of  muster  into  the 
United  States  service,  with  present  personnel,  each  unit  be- 
ing brought  to  war  strength  after  muster,  vary  from  two  months 
to  twelve  months.  It  is  probably  nearly  correct  to  say  that 
six  months  of  very  active  preparation  would  be  required  to  fit  the 
militia  as  a  body  for  encountering  in  the  field  a  well-disciplined 
enemy. 

"Substantial  progress  has  been  made  in  supplying  to  the 
states  equipment  in  wagon  transportation,  including  harness, 
necessary  for  the  field  and  combat  trains  of  existing  units. 
The  total  number  of  wagons  required  for  this  purpose  is 


THE  MILITIA  AND  NATIONAL  GUARD        179 

3,572  and  this  number  has  been  made  up  with  the  exception  of 
316." 

The  National  Guard  under  the  stimulating  influence  of  fed- 
eral pay,  increase  in  personnel,'and  other  features  of  the  National 
Guard  legislation  should  rapidly  take  on  new  life  and  become  a 
great  military  asset  of  the  Nation. 


"In  the  spirit  of  Americanism,  action  must  be  taken  for  the  common  defense. 
We  must  be  ready,  in  spirit,  arms  and  industry.  Preparation  in  arms  requires: 

"A  Navy  restored  to  at  least  second  rank  in  battle  efficiency; 

"  A  regular  Army  of  250,000  men,  fully  armed  and  trained,  as  a  first  line  of 
land  defense; 

"A  system  of  military  training  adequate  to  organize  with  promptness,  behind 
that  first  line  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  a  citizen  soldiery,  supplied,  armed  and  con- 
trolled by  the  national  Government. 

"  In  our  democracy  every  male  citizen  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  defending 
his  country.  This  duty  is  not  new.  It  has  existed  from  the  foundation  of  the 
Government.  Under  modern  conditions  it  cannot  be  performed  without  military 
training;  service  without  training  means  slaughter  and  disaster.  As  the  nation 
has  always  recognized  and  exercised  the  right  to  enforce  compulsory  military 
service  in  time  of  war,  so  should  there  be  universal  military  training  for  that 
service  during  times  of  peace." — Prom  Progressive  Party  Platform. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  WAR  COLLEGE  AND  ARMY  SERVICE  SCHOOLS 

THE  military  educational  system  of  the  United  States  com- 
prises : 

1.  The  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

2.  Post  Schools  for  the  instruction  of  enlisted  men. 

3.  At  each  military  post  a  garrison  school  for  the  instruction 
of  officers  in  subjects  pertaining  to  the  performance  of  their 
ordinary  duties. 

4.  Service  Schools: 

(a)  The  Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(6)  The  Army  Staff  College,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

(c)  The  Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va. 

(d)  The  Engineer  School,  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. 

(e)  The  Mounted  Service  School,  Fort  Riley,  Kans. 
(/)  The  Army  Medical  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(g)  The  Army  Signal  School,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

(ti)  The  Army  School  of  the  Line,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

(i)  The   School   for   Bakers   and  Cooks,  Washington  Bar- 
racks, D.  C. 

(j)  The  School  for  Bakers  and  Cooks,  Presidio  of  Monterey, 
Cal. 

(fc)  The  School  for  Bakers  and  Cooks,  Fort  Sam  Houston, 
Tex. 

(1)   The  School  for  Bakers  and  Cooks,  Fort  Shafter,  Hawaii. 

(w)  The  Army  Field  Engineer  School,  Fort  Leavenworth. 

(n)  The  Army  Field  Service  and  Correspondence  School  for 
Medical  Officers,  Fort  Leavenworth. 

(o)  The  School  of  Fire  for  Field  Artillery,  Fort  Sill,  Okla. ' 

180 


Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Army  Service  Schools  and  library,  Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kans. 


Cadet  Corps  and  barracks,  New  Mexico  Military  Institute, 
Roswell,  N.  Mex. 


Types  of  mud  ovens  for  baking  bread  in  the  field 


Field  range  and  equipment  for  one  company 


Field  bakery 
Enlisted  Men's  School  for  cooks  and  bakers,  Fort  Riley,  Kansas 


THE  WAR  COLLEGE  181 

(p)  The  School  of  Musketry,  Fort  Sill,  Okla. 

(q)  The  Signal  Corps  Aviation  School,  San  Diego,  Cal. 

5.  The  military  department  of  civil  institutions  at  which 
officers  of  the  Army  are  detailed  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Morrill  and  other  acts. 

Prior  to  our  war  for  independence,  the  art  of  war  figured 
very  little  in  the  battles  with  the  Indians.  Guerilla  warfare 
was  common.  The  Revolutionary  War  designed  to  wrest  con- 
trol of  the  Colonies  from  one  of  the  greatest  military  nations  of 
the  world,  called  for  a  high  degree  of  military  training  and  organ- 
ization, military  art,  and  strategy.  A  military  force  had  to  be 
improvised.  Raw  recruits  had  to  be  organized,  equipped, 
trained,  and  disciplined.  The  success  of  the  Revolution  hinged 
upon  the  almost  superhuman  handling  of  inferior  troops.  The 
essential  instruction  and  training  were  partially  met  by  giving 
positions  of  military  rank  to  experienced  foreign  soldiers  not 
in  sympathy  with  England,  notably  Pulaski,  Kosciusko, 
LaFayette,  and  DeKalb. 

Washington's  military  genius  quickly  developed.  His  terse 
epigrams  on  the  need  of  military  training  and  preparedness  and 
the  danger  of  relying  upon  the  untrained  volunteers  are  quoted 
more  extensively  to-day  than  the  opinions  of  any  other  military- 
statesman  critic.  The  greatest  need  of  the  nation,  the  greatest 
bulwark  against  national  disaster  lay  in  the  establishment  of  a 
school  of  military  education  and  training.  It  was  Washington 
who  lead  in  advocating  military  education  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point. 

The  Service  Schools  are  primarily  for  the  education  and  train- 
ing of  officers  in  the  science  of  warfare.  The  instruction  covers 
a  large  field  requiring  the  closest  application  from  student 
officers,  thus  making  competition  very  keen. 

In  1824  a  school  for  artillery  was  established,  which  is  now 
known  as  the  Coast  Artillery  School,  Fort  Monroe,  Va.  This 
school  comprises  technical  and  practical  courses  for  both  officers 
and  enlisted  men. 


182  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

What  is  now  known  as  the  Army  Service  Schools  at  Fort 
Leavenworth,  Kans.,  originated  in  1881,  through  the  efforts  of 
General  William  Tecumseh  Sherman,  as  Commanding  General 
of  the  Army.  The  Army  Service  Schools  comprise  a  group  of 
affiliated  schools  for  the  better  preparation  of  the  mobile  army 
for  war.  These  Schools  are:  the  School  of  the  Line,  the  Army 
Staff  College,  the  Army  Signal  School,  the  Field  Engineering 
School,  special  courses  for  field  officers  and  National  Guard 
officers,  and  a  correspondence  course  for  medical  officers.  The 
environment  of  Fort  Leavenworth  lends  itself  admirably  to 
the  practical  work  of  these  schools.  The  military  reservation 
comprises  several  thousand  acres  of  diversified  terrain,  extending 
along  both  sides  of  the  Missouri  River. 

The  Army  School  of  the  Line  is  the  basic  school.  Its  object 
is  the  instruction  of  specially  selected  officers  from  the  line  and 
staff  corps,  in  the  proper  methods  employed  in  the  leading  and 
care  of  troops  in  time  of  war  and  their  training  in  time  of  peace. 
All  branches  of  the  Service  are  represented  at  this  school  in- 
cluding one  or  more  officers  of  the  Marine  Corps  and  Porto 
Rican  regiment  of  Infantry,  and  occasionally  officers  of  foreign 
countries. 

The  Army  Staff  College  is  made  up  of  those  officers  who  have 
graduated  from  the  School  of  the  Line  with  a  class  standing  as 
high  as  No.  18. 

The  Mounted  Service  School,  Fort  Riley,  Kansas,  provides  a 
two  years'  course  of  instruction  for  officers  of  cavalry  and  field 
artillery.  Enlisted  men's  schools  are  here  maintained  for  far- 
riers, horseshoers,  cooks,  and  bakers. 

The  School  of  Fire  for  the  Field  Artillery  was  recently  estab- 
lished at  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma,  and  embodies  the  best  ideas  in 
field  'artillery  training  and  fire  control  of  European  armies, 
being  the  result  of  attendance  of  some  of  our  officers  at  artillery 
schools  abroad. 

A  School  of  Musketry,  primarily  for  Infantry  troops,  is  also 
maintained  at  Fort  Sill. 


THE  WAR  COLLEGE  183 

The  Army  War  College  at  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C.,  was 
established  in  1901.  It  is  presided  over  by  Brigadier  General 
Montgomery  M.  McComb,  General  Staff  Corps,  with  Lieut.  Colo- 
nel Andrew  Moses,  C.  A.  C.,  General  Staff  Corps,  as  Secretary. 
The  magnificent  college  building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  $700,000 
in  1907.  The  purpose  of  the  War  College  is  to  make  a  prac- 
ticable application  of  knowledge  already  acquired.  The  ob- 
jects are: 

(a)  The  direction  and  coordination  of  military  education 
in  the  Army  and  civil  schools  and  colleges  at  which  officers  of 
the  Army  are  detailed  and  the  extension  of  opportunities  for  in- 
vestigation and  study  in  the  militia  of  the  United  States. 

(6)  To  provide  facilities  for  and  to  promote  advanced  studies 
of  military  subjects  and  to  formulate  the  opinion  of  the  College 
body  on  the  subjects  studied  for  the  information  of  the  Chief  of 
Staff. 

The  War  College  is  the  clearing  house  of  military  information. 
To  it  is  referred  the  reports  of  all  military  attaches  and  data 
relating  in  any  way  to  military  establishments  and  policy,  and 
the  art  and  strategy  of  war. 

The  student  officers  of  the  War  College  are  selected  from  offi- 
cers above  the  rank  of  Captain  having  more  than  twenty  years 
service. 

Major  General  Wm.  H.  Carter,  in  his  book,  "The  American 
Army,"  thus  summarizes  our  system  of  military  education: 
"The  educational  scheme  contemplates  that  beginning  his 
career  in  the  garrison  school  every  officer  shall  be  required  to  fit 
himself  thoroughly  for  the  responsible  duties  of  his  grade,  in- 
cluding familiarity  with  company  and  post  administration  and 
that  of  the  staff  and  supply  service.  Those  officers  who  ex- 
hibit the  most  aptitude  in  the  garrison  schools  are  regarded  as 
having  a  right  to  precedence  when  selections  from  their  grade 
are  made  for  attendance  at  the  Army  School  of  the  Line.  Sim- 
ilarly selections  are  here  made  for  the  advanced  course  in  the 
Army  Staff  College.  Eventually  the  distinguished  graduates 


184  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  the  Staff  College,  after  a  tour  of  service  with  their  regiments, 
are  destined  for  participation  in  the  course  of  study  at  the  Army 
War  College,  where  they  will  have  an  opportunity  not  only  to 
observe  the  work  of  the  General  Staff  in  connection  with  war 
plans,  but  also  to  participate  in  similar  studies.  In  this  way  it 
is  expected  that  the  nation  will  eventually  have  at  its  disposal 
a  highly  trained  body  of  officers  whose  qualifications  are  a  mat- 
ter of  official  record  based  upon  progressive  work." 


"We  demand  adequate  national  defense,  adequate  protection  on  both  our 
Western  and  Eastern  coasts.  We  demand  thoroughness  and  efficiency  in  both 
arms  of  the  service.  It  seems  to  be  plain  that  our  Regular  Army  is  too  small.  We 
are  too  great  a  country  to  require  of  our  citizens  who  are  engaged  in  peaceful 
vocation  the  sort  of  military  service  to  which  they  are  now  called.  As  well  insist 
that  our  citizens  in  this  metropolis  be  summoned  to  put  out  fires  and  police  the 
streets.  We  do  not  count  it  inconsistent  with  our  liberties,  or  with  our  demo- 
cratic ideals,  to  have  an  adequate  police  force.  With  a  population  of  nearly  one 
hundred  millions  we  need  to  be  surer  of  ourselves  than  to  become  alarmed  at  the 
prospect  of  having  a  Regular  Army  which  can  reasonably  protect  our  border, 
and  perform  such  other  military  service  as  may  be  required,  in  the  absence  of  a 
grave  emergency.  I  believe  further,  that  there  should  be  not  only  a  reasonable 
increase  in  the  Regular  Army,  but  that  the  first  citizen  reserve  subject  to  call 
should  be  enlisted  as  a  Federal  Army  and  trained  under  Federal  authority." 

— From  Mr.  Hughes's  Speech  of  Acceptance. 


New  arrivals  at  West  Point 


Fifteen  minutes  later 


Summer  camp 


Battalion  parade,  U.  S.  M.  A. 


"The  simple  life"  at  West  Point 


Building  barrel  raft.     Outdoor  class  in  engineering 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY 

THE  United  States  Military  Academy  was 
founded  by  Act  of  Congress  March  16,  1802. 
General  Washington  died  without  having  real- 
ized his  cherished  ambition  of  seeing  such  a 
school  established .  Two  days  before  his  death 
he  wrote  Alexander  Hamilton  on  this  subject 
as  follows : 

"The  establishment  of  an  institution  of  this 
kind,  upon  a  respectable  and  extensive  basis,  has  ever  been 
considered  by  me  as  an  object  of  primary  importance  to  this 
country;  and  while  I  was  in  the  Chair  of  Government,  I  omit- 
ted no  proper  opportunity  of  recommending  it,  in  my  public 
speeches  and  other  ways,  to  the  attention  of  the  Legislature." 

The  Military  Academy  has  long  since  attained  a  proficiency 
in  military  art  and  science,  and  general  efficiency,  as  to  estab- 
lish the  reputation  of  being  the  most  advanced  military  college 
in  the  world.  To  graduate  from  it  is  one  of  the  highest  distinc- 
tions Young  America  can  attain.  It  and  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  are  the  most  democratic  institutions  in  the 
world.  There  the  sons  of  the  rich  and  poor  are  on  absolutely 
equal  terms.  There  is  no  class  distinction,  no  religious  dis- 
crimination, no  favoritism  of  any  kind. 

The  West  Point  Military  reservation  of  several  hundred 
acres  is  situated  on  a  high  bluff  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River  fifty  miles  north  of  New  York  City.  A  great  bend  in  the 
river  at  this  point  adds  to  the  picturesqueness  and  grandeur 

185 


186  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  the  scenic  beauty.  The  Government  in  recent  years  has  been 
very  liberal  in  providing  many  massive  stone  buildings  of 
imposing  architectural  design.  The  Military  Academy  is  the 
basis  of  our  military  educational  system.  It  develops  to  an 
extreme  degree  self-reliance,  self-restraint,  manliness,  independ- 
ence, neatness,  etiquette,  culture,  and  refinement;  respect  for 
law  and  order  and  fellow  man,  discipline,  courage,  and  for- 
bearance— a  composite  type  of  American  citizen  and  soldier, 
the  personification  of  democracy. 

The  U.  S.  M.  A.  is  a  school  for  the  practical  and  theoretical 
training  of  cadets  for  the  military  service.  Upon  the  satis- 
factory completion  of  its  course,  cadets  are  eligible  for  promo- 
tion and  commission  as  Second  Lieutenants  in  any  arm  of  corps 
of  the  Army,  the  branch  of  service  being  somewhat  dependent 
upon  class  standing,  the  vacancies  in  the  Engineer  Corps  being 
tendered  to  the  honor  men  of  each  class. 

The  Chief  of  Staff  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  matters 
in  the  War  Department  pertaining  to  the  Academy.  The 
immediate  control  is  vested  in  the  Superintendent  and  the 
academic  board  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  various  Depart- 
ments, the  Commandant  of  Cadets,  the  Adjutant,  and  the 
Quartermaster.  West  Point  has  been  occupied  continuously 
as  a  military  post  since  January  20,  1778.  The  earliest  pro- 
posal for  a  military  school  for  the  United  States  was  that  of 
Brigadier  General  Henry  Knox,  Chief  of  Artillery  (May,  1776). 
His  plans  were  seconded  by  Colonel  Alexander  Hamilton  and 
approved  by  General  Washington. 

On  October  1,  1776  the  Colonial  Congress  passed  a  resolution 
appointing  a  committee  to  prepare  a  plan  for  "A  Military  Acad- 
emy at  the  Army."  The  result  was  the  resolution  of  June  20, 
1777,  providing  for  a  corps  of  Invalids  "to  serve  as  a  military 
school  for  young  gentlemen  previous  to  their  being  appointed 
to  marching  regiments."  The  Invalid  Corps  was  organized 
in  July,  1777.  In  1781,  at  the  request  of  Washington,  it  was 
marched  to  form  part  of  the  garrison  at  West  Point,  where  an 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY       187 

engineer  school,  a  laboratory,  and  a  library  had  already  been 
established  in  three  separate  buildings. 

In  1779,  the  Board  of  War  adopted  regulations  for  the  Corps 
of  Engineers  and  for  the  Sappers  and  Miners.  These  were 
promulgated  in  orders  by  General  Washington.  The  plan 
contemplated  lectures  by  engineer  officers,  on  fortification, 
mining,  reconnoissance,  encampments  and  the  like.  Practical 
experiments  in  gunnery  were  conducted  at  West  Point  as  early 
as  February,  1780.  In  1783,  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities, 
Washington,  having  been  called  upon  for  his  views  as  to  the 
peace  establishment,  laid  the  matter  of  a  Military  Academy 
before  his  officers  at  Newburgh.  He  referred  to  it  again  in  his 
message  on  December  3,  1793.  The  law  of  May  9,  1794,  auth- 
orized the  organization  of  a  Corps  of  Artillerists  and  Engineers 
with  two  cadets  to  a  company,  thus  creating  the  new  grade  of 
"cadet"  in  the  American  Army.  A  school  for  the  Artillerists 
and  Engineers,  and  for  the  cadets  attached  to  the  Corps  was 
established,  on  the  recommendation  of  Washington,  at  West 
Point  in  1794.  The  destruction  of  its  buildings  by  fire  in  1796 
caused  a  suspension.  In  July,  1801,  the  Secretary  of  War 
directed  that  all  the  cadets  of  the  Corps  of  Artillerists  should 
report  at  West  Point  for  instruction,  and  in  September  a  school 
was  opened  with  four  Army  officers  and  a  civilian  as  administra- 
tors and  instructors. 

An  Act  of  Congress  approved  March  16,  1802,  authorized  the 
President  to  organize  and  establish  a  Corps  of  Engineers  to 
consist  of  five  officers  and  ten  cadets  and  provided  that  it  should 
be  stationed  at  West  Point,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  should 
constitute  a  Military  Academy.  The  Academy  with  ten  cadets 
present  was  formally  opened  July  4. 

Acts  of  Congress,  in  1802  and  1808,  authorized  forty  cadets 
from  the  Artillery,  100  from  the  Infantry,  16  from  the  Dragoons 
and  20  from  the  Riflemen;  few  of  these  were  appointed,  and  no 
provision  was  made  for  them  at  the  Academy.  In  1810  the 
Academy  was  deprived  of  nearly  all  means  of  instruction,  and 


188  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

officers  and  cadets  had  difficulty  in  obtaining  their  pay.  During 
most  of  the  year  1811  and  a  part  of  1812,  although  war  was  im- 
minent, academic  instruction  was  practically  abandoned.  In 
March,  1812,  the  Academy  was  without  a  single  instructor. 
Up  to  and  including  this  time,  88  cadets  had  been  graduated; 
they  entered  without  mental  or  physical  examination,  at  all 
ages  from  12  to  34,  and  at  various  times  during  the  year. 

The  Military  Academy  was  reorganized  in  1812,  under  the 
general  principles  upon  which  it  has  since  been  conducted. 
The  mental  requisites  and  the  age  limit  were  then  first  pre- 
scribed. 

In  1817,  under  the  able  superintendency  of  Major  Sylvanus 
Thayer,  C.  E.,  the  present  era  hi  the  Academy's  history  opened. 
Until  1843,  a  prescribed  residence  was  not  a  legal  qualification 
for  appointment,  but  the  selection  of  one  cadet  from  each  con- 
gressional district  had  become  the  custom.  In  that  year  the 
custom  became  the  law. 

By  an  Act  of  Congress,  in  May,  1916,  the  Corps  of  Cadets  is 
to  be  increased  to  1 ,332  in  four  annual  increments.  This  Act  pro- 
vides that  the  Corps  of  Cadets  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  shall  hereafter  consist  of  two  for  each  congressional 
district  and  territory,  four  from  the  District  of  Columbia,  two 
natives  of  Porto  Rico,  four  from  each  state  at  large,  and  eighty 
from  the  United  States  at  large,  twenty  of  whom  shall  be  se- 
lected from  among  the  honor  graduates  of  educational  institu- 
tions having  officers  of  the  Regular  Army  detailed  as  professors 
of  military  science  and  tactics,  and  which  institutions  are  de- 
signed as  "honor  schools,"  upon  the  determination  of  their 
relative  standing  at  the  last  preceding  annual  inspection  made 
by  the  War  Department.  They  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
President  and  shall,  with  the  exception  of  the  eighty  appointed 
from  the  United  States  at  large,  be  actual  residents  of  the  con- 
gressional district,  or  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  of  the  island 
of  Porto  Rico,  or  of  the  states,  respectively,  from  which  they 
purport  to  be  appointed.  The  President  is  authorized  to  ap- 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY        189 

point  cadets  from  among  enlisted  men  of  the  Regular  Army  and 
National  Guard  between  the  ages  of  nineteen  and  twenty-one 
years  who  have  served  not  less  than  one  year,  provided  that  the 
total  number  so  selected  shall  not  exceed  180  at  any  one  time. 

The  appointment  from  a  congressional  district  or  territory, 
is  made  upon  the  recommendation  of  its  representative  or  dele- 
gate in  Congress  and  those  from  a  state  at  large  by  the  U.  S. 
senators. 

The  Secretary  of  War  is  authorized  to  permit  not  to  exceed 
four  Filipinos,  one  for  each  class,  to  be  designated  by  the  Philip- 
pine Commission. 

Appointments  to  West  Point  are  required  by  law  to  be  made 
one  year  in  advance  of  the  date  of  admission,  except  in  cases 
where,  by  reason  of  death  or  other  cause,  a  vacancy  occurs 
which  cannot  be  provided  for  by  such  appointment  in  advance. 
These  vacancies  are  filled  in  time  for  the  next  examination. 

For  each  vacancy  three  candidates  should  be  nominated,  one 
of  the  candidates  to  be  named  as  principal  and  the  others  as 
alternates.  The  alternate  making  the  highest  proficient  aver- 
age will  be  entitled  to  admission  in  case  of  the  failure  of  the 
principal.  Each  candidate  will  receive  from  the  War  Depart- 
ment a  letter  of  appointment,  and  he  must  appear  for  examina- 
tion at  the  time  and  place  designated. 

On  the  last  Tuesday  of  March  of  each  year  candidates  se- 
lected for  appointment  appear  for  mental  and  physical  examina- 
tion before  Boards  of  Army  officers  to  be  convened  at  such 
places  designated  by  the  War  Department.  Candidates  who 
pass  are  admitted  to  the  Academy  without  further  examination 
upon  reporting  in  person  to  the  Superintendent  before  12  o'clock 
noon  on  the  14th  of  June  following  the  examination. 

Each  candidate  before  admission  to  the  Academy  must  show 
by  examination  that  he  is  well  versed  in  algebra,  to  include 
quadratic  equations  and  progressions,  plane  geometry,  English 
grammar,  composition  and  literature,  descriptive  and  physical 
geography,  general  and  United  States  history. 


190  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

No  rejected  candidate  shall  be  re-examined,  except  upon 
recommendation  of  the  Academic  Board. 

Immediately  after  reporting  to  the  Superintendent  for  ad- 
mission and  before  receiving  their  warrants  of  appointment, 
candidates  are  required  to  sign  engagements  for  service  in  the 
United  States  Army  for  eight  years  from  the  date  of  admission 
as  a  candidate,  unless  "  sooner  discharged  by  competent  author- 
ity." Each  cadet  subscribes  to  an  oath  of  allegiance  in  the  fol- 
lowing form :  "  I  .  .  .  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  support 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  bear  true  allegiance 
to  the  National  Government;  that  I  will  maintain  and  defend 
the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States  paramount  to  any  and  all 
allegiance,  sovereignty  or  fealty  I  may  owe  to  any  state,  county, 
or  country  whatsoever,  and  that  I  will  at  all  times  obey  the 
legal  orders  of  my  superior  officers  and  the  rules  and  articles 
governing  the  Armies  of  the  United  States." 

No  candidate  shall  be  admitted  who  is  under  seventeen  or 
over  twenty-two  years  of  age  (19—21  if  an  enlisted  man  of  the 
Army  of  National  Guard),  or  less  than  five  feet  four  inches  in 
height  at  the  age  of  eighteen  and  upward. 

Each  candidate  designated  as  principal  or  alternate  should 
ascertain  as  soon  as  practicable  whether  or  not  he  has  any 
physical  defect  that  would  disqualify  him  or  any  that  should  be 
corrected  by  treatment.  For  this  purpose  he  should  immediately 
cause  himself  to  be  examined  by  his  family  physician,  and,  if  he 
desires,  by  an  Army  surgeon  at  the  nearest  military  post.  Such 
examination  should  enable  the  candidate  to  decide  whether 
or  not  to  devote  the  time  and  possible  expense  necessary 
for  preparation  for  the  entrance  examination.  The  infor- 
mal examination  recommended  is  solely  for  the  convenience 
and  benefit  of  the  candidate  himself,  and  can  in  no  manner 
affect  the  decision  of  the  Academic  and  Medical  Examining 
Boards. 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  mental  examination,  all  candidates 
will  be  thoroughly  examined  physically  by  the  medical  officers 


Indoor  class  in  engineering 


v£l 


Physical  culture 


University  of  Minnesota  battery  or  field  artillery,  1916,  part  of 
National  Guard  and  Cadet  Corps 


Copyright  by  H.  C.  Cable 

Cornell    University  cadets   on    campus   for   annual    inspection, 

May  5,  1916 


Cadet  Corps,  University  of  California 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY        191 

of  the  Board,  under  the  following  instructions  prepared  by  the 
Surgeon  General  of  the  Army : 

Hearing  must  be  normal  in  both  ears. 

Vision,  as  determined  by  official  test  types,  must  not  fall  be- 
low 20-40  in  either  eye,  and  not  below  20-20  unless  the  defect 
is  a  simple  refractive  error  not  hyperopia,  is  not  due  to  ocular 
disease,  and  is  entirely  corrected  by  proper  glasses. 

In  the  record  of  all  examinations  the  acuity  of  vision  without 
glasses,  and  also  with  glasses  when  the  acuity  is  less  than  20-20 
will  be  given  for  each  eye  separately;  in  the  latter  case,  the  cor- 
rection will  also  be  noted. 

Hyperopia  requiring  any  spherical  correction,  animosmetro- 
pia,  squint  or  muscular  insufficiency,  if  marked,  are  causes  for 
rejection. 

Color  blindness,  red,  green  or  violet,  is  cause  for  rejection. 

Teeth — a  candidate  must  have  at  least  four  serviceable 
double  (bicuspid  or  molar)  teeth,  two  above  and  two  below,  and 
so  opposed  as  to  serve  the  purpose  of  mastication.  Loss  of 
many  teeth  or  teeth  generally  unsound  is  also  cause  for  rejection. 
In  the  latter  case,  however,  a  candidate  may  be  accepted  subject 
to  the  condition  of  having  cavities  filled  and  mouth  put  in  good 
sanitary  condition  by  the  date  set  for  his  arrival  at  West  Point. 

The  following  are  causes  for  disqualification  if  found  to  exist 
to  such  a  degree  as  would  immediately  or  at  no  very  distant 
period  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  candidate : 

1.  Feeble  constitution;  unsound  health  from  whatever  cause; 
indications  of  former  disease,  glanular  swellings  or  other  symp- 
toms of  scrofula. 

2.  Chronic  cutaneous  affections,  especially  of  the  scalp. 

3.  Severe  injuries  of  the  bones  of  the  head;  convulsions. 

4.  Impaired  vision,  from  whatever  cause;  inflammatory  af- 
fections of  the  eyelids;  immobility  or  irregularity  of  the  iris; 
fistula  lachrymalis,  etc. 

5.  Deafness;  copious  discharge  from  the  ears. 

6.  Impediment  of  speech. 


192  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

7.  Want  of  due  capacity  of  the  chest,  and  any  other  indication 
of  liability  to  a  pulmonic  disease. 

8.  Impaired  or  inadequate  efficiency  of  one  or  both  of  the 
superior  extremities  on  account  of  fractures,  especially  of  the 
clavicle  contraction  of  a  joint,  deformity,  etc. 

9.  An  unusual  excurvature  or  incurvature  of  the  spine. 

10.  Hernia. 

11.  A  varicose  state  of  the  veins. 

12.  Impaired  or  inadequate  efficiency  of  one  or  both  of  the 
inferior  extremities  on  account  of  varicose  veins,  fractures, 
malformation  (flat  feet,  etc.),  lameness,  contraction,  unequal 
length,  bunions,  overlying  or  supernumerary  toes,  etc. 

13.  Ulcers,  unsound  cicatrices  of  ulcers  likely  to  break  out 
afresh.     Students  who  are  regularly  enrolled  at  an  educational 
institution  accredited  by  the  Military  Academy  are  exempt  from 
mental  examination  under  certain  conditions. 

All  cadets  are  examined  physically  hi  May  of  each  year. 
Those  found  disqualified  to  continue  with  the  course  are  dis- 
charged. 

Academic  duties  »re  suspended  from  the  completion  of  the 
June  examination  until  the  end  of  August.  During  this  period 
cadets  live  in  camp  and  are  engaged  in  military  duties  and  ex- 
ercises and  in  receiving  practical  military  instruction.  Acad- 
demic  duties  are  also  suspended  from  December  24th  until 
January  2nd,  except  for  those  undergoing  examination.  All 
duties  and  exercises,  as  far  as  practicable,  are  suspended  on 
national  and  legal  holidays. 

Cadets  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  classes  not  undergoing 
examination  are  allowed  short  leaves  at  Christmas,  if  then- 
conduct  during  the  preceding  six  months  has  been  satisfactory. 
Excepting  these  short  leaves  for  good  conduct,  cadets  are  allowed 
but  one  leave  of  absence  during  the  four  years'  course.  This 
leave  is  granted  to  those  cadets  who  have  successfully  com- 
pleted the  third  class  course  of  study  and  extends  from  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  28th  of  August. 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY        193 


The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  $600  per  year  and  one  ration  per  day, 
or  commutation  therefore  at  thirty  cents  per  day.  The  actual 
and  necessary  traveling  expenses  of  candidates  from  their 
homes  to  the  Military  Academy  are  credited  to  their  accounts 
after  their  admission  as  cadets. 

No  cadet  is  permitted  to  receive  money,  or  any  other  supplies 
from  his  parents,  or  from  any  person  whomsoever,  without  the 
sanction  of  the  Superintendent.  A  most 
rigid  observance  of  this  regulation  is  urged 
upon  all  parents  and  guardians,  as  its  viola- 
tions would  make  distinctions  between  cadets 
which  it  is  the  especial  desire  to  avoid;  the 
pay  of  a  cadet  is  sufficient  with  proper  eco- 
nomy, for  his  support. 

Cadets  are  required  to  wear  the  prescribed 
uniform.  All  articles  of  their  uniform  are 
of  a  designated  pattern,  and  are  sold  at  reg- 
ulated prices. 

Immediately  after  admission  candidates 
must  be  provided  with  an  outfit  of  uniform, 
etc.,  the  cost  of  which  is  about  $160.  This 
sum,  or  at  least  $100  thereof,  must  be  de- 
posited with  the  treasurer  of  the  Academy 
before  the  candidate  is  admitted.  Upon 
graduation  a  cadet  who  has  exercised  proper 
economy  will  have  sufficient  money  to  his 
credit  with  the  treasurer  of  the  Academy,  to  purchase  his  uni- 
form and  equipment  as  an  officer. 

Cadets  and  officers  have  free  access  to  the  library,  which 
comprises  over  90,000  books,  maps,  and  manuscripts.  The  col- 
lection contains  substantially  all  standard  books  on  the  subjects 
taught  in  the  Academy  and  is  especially  complete  in  military 
subjects. 

During  the  summer  encampment  cadets  partake  of  camp  life, 
marches,  battle  exercises,  advance  guard  and  rear,  scouting, 


194  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

outpost  duty,  etc.  This  affords  a  welcome  change  from  the 
nine  and  one-half  months  of  constant  routine  of  hard  study  and 
drill  from  6  A.  M.  to  10  p.  M.  daily.  This  summer  camp  forms  a 
most  important  and  practical  part  of  military  education  and 
training.  The  camp  site,  camp  arrangement,  and  sanitation 
is  practically  perfect  and  a  model.  All  police  work  at  camp 
is  done  by  cadets. 

This  camp  training  is  especially  valuable  to  the  Senior  or 
First  Class  who  are  soon  to  graduate  and  take  up  their  profes- 
sion as  junior  officers  in  the  Army.  This  class  is  also  taken  to 
one  of  the  Coast  Defense  Commands  for  practical  work  at  a  sea- 
coast  battery,  and  hi  submarine  mining,  including  target  prac- 
tice and  blowing  up  of  mines. 

The  men  of  the  first  class  are  given  a  special  course  hi  equita- 
tion, including  horse  training,  packing,  hippology,  stable  man- 
agement and  in  taking  various  jumps  bareback,  with  pad  and 
service  saddle.  About  fifty  per  cent,  of  these  men  further  im- 
prove their  seat  with  polo  practice. 

The  West  Point  graduate  is  well  versed  in  horsemanship 
and  the  potentialities  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  mounts. 

The  Third  Year  class  pay  considerable  attention  while  in 
camp  to  mounted  drill  in  Field  Artillery,  with  an  hour  a  day  hi 
the  riding  hall  acquiring  a  proper  seat  and  learning  something 
of  the  control  of  the  horse. 

The  Fourth  classmen  have  no  cavalry  drill.  The  greater 
part  of  the  practical  field  work  is  given  as  infantrymen.  Close 
and  extended  order  drills  become  second  nature.  This  accounts 
for  the  superior  dress  parades  for  which  the  Cadet  Corps  is 
famous.  The  appearance  of  the  Cadet  Corps  in  Washington 
at  the  Inaugural  parade  has  become  traditional.  During  the  an- 
nual practice  march  and  maneuver  period,  considerable  field 
and  military  engineering  work  is  indulged  in. 

Rifle  practice  extends  throughout  the  entire  course.  In  order 
to  develop  maneuver  problems  to  the  highest  practical  degree, 
the  various  detachments  stationed  at  West  Point  are  joined  to 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY        195 

the  Cadet  Corps,  thus  forming  a  force  of  six  companies  of  in- 
fantry, two  small  troops  of  cavalry,  a  battery  of  field  artillery 
and  a  mountain  gun  and  machine  gun  detachment,  all  of  which 
are  commanded  in  turn  by  members  of  the  First  Class.  This 
force  is  divided  into  two  parts,  each  commanded  by  an  officer 
of  the  Department  of  Tactics.  The  officer  in  command  plans 
the  offense  or  defense,  issues  the  necessary  orders,  leaving  their 
actual  execution  to  cadets.  Each  prospective  officer  is  thus 
afforded  opportunity  to  command  each  arm  of  the  service  and 
to  secure  at  the  same  time  a  comprehensive  view  of  how  the 
different  arms  work  together. 

Every  effort  is  made  to  simulate  actual  service. 

Upon  graduation  the  cadet  is  possessed  of  a  sound  practical 
and  theoretical  basis  upon  which  to  begin  his  career  as  a  profes- 
sional soldier. 

Systematic  training  in  athletics  and  physical  culture  is  con- 
ducted daily  by  Captain  Koehler,  Master  of  the  Sword.  This 
instruction  is  compulsory  and  is  given  both  indoors  in  the  gym- 
nasium and  in  the  open.  Instruction  in  dancing  is  given  to 
each  class. 

All  forms  of  outdoor  sports  are  indulged  in  individually  and 
by  class  or  teams,  such  as  swimming,  rowing,  golf,  tennis,  polo, 
baseball,  football,  fencing,  and  field  day  sports. 

Intercollegiate  schedules  for  various  games  are  played  at  West 
Point. 

The  climax  of  the  football  season  is  the  annual  game  between 
West  Point  and  Annapolis,  on  the  Saturday  after  Thanks- 
giving at  Franklin  Field  Philadelphia  and  the  Polo  Grounds, 
New  York  City,  alternately.  This  event  is  witnessed  by 
both  Corps  of  Cadets  and  upward  of  40,000  people,  including 
the  President,  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and 
many  prominent  officials  and  dignitaries. 

The  annual  baseball  game  between  the  Academies  is  a  mid- 
summer gala  occasion. 


196  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Cadets  who  excel  in  the  various  sports  are  awarded  permission 
to  wear  the  traditional  "  A  "  upon  their  sweaters. 

The  working  organization  consists  of : 

Superintendent  and  Commandant. 

Military  Staff. 

Departments  of  Instruction. 

Corps  of  Cadets,  and 

Detachment  of  troops  assigned  for  duty  to  that  post. 

The  academic  departments  arranged  in  the  order  in  which 
they  were  created  by  law  are: 

Department  of  Tactics. 

Department  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineering. 

Department  of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy. 

Department  of  Mathematics. 

Department  of  Chemistry,  Minerology,  and  Geology. 

Department  of  Drawing. 

Department  of  Modern  Languages. 

Department  of  Law. 

Department  of  Practical  Military  Engineering,  Military 
Signaling,  and  Telegraphy. 

Department  of  Ordnance  and  Gunnery. 

Department  of  Military  Hygiene. 

Department  of  English  and  History. 

For  instruction  in  infantry  drill  regulations  and  in  military 
police  and  discipline,  the  Corps  of  Cadets  is  organized  into  two 
battalions,  under  the  Commandant  of  Cadets,  each  battalion 
and  company  being  commanded  by  an  Army  officer.  The 
increase  authorized  by  the  present  Congress  became  effective 
July  1,  1916,  making  necessary  the  organization  of  another 
battalion.  The  cadet  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers 
are  selected  from  those  cadets  who  have  been  most  studious, 
soldier-like  in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  and  most  exemp- 
plary  in  their  general  deportment. 

Cadets  during  the  first  year's  course  constitute  the  fourth 
class,  commonly  called  "Plebes";  those  on  the  second  year's 


UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY        197 

course,  the  third  class;  those  on  the  third  year's  course  the 
second  class;  and  those  of  the  fourth  year's  course,  the  first  class. 

The  academic  year  commences  the  first  of  July.  On  or  be- 
fore that  date  the  result  of  the  examination  held  in  the  preceding 
month  is  announced  and  cadets  are  advanced  from  one  class  to 
another. 

Graduation  week  is  the  second  week  of  June.  All  exercises 
are  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Board  of 
Visitors  which  is  in  session  during  this  period.  The  graduation 
class  after  receiving  their  diplomas  are  granted  three  months' 
leave  of  absence  as  Second  Lieutenants  on  full  pay  and  report 
for  duty  with  their  regiments  or  organizations  Sept.  15th  fol- 
lowing. 

Graduation  week  is  also  the  occasion  for  many  class  reunions 
and  a  series  of  athletic  competitions  and  sports. 

The  one-hundredth  night  ball  given  100  nights  previous  to 
graduation  day  is  the  greatest  winter  social  event. 

The  total  number  of  graduates  of  the  Military  Academy,  in- 
cluding the  Class  of  1916,  is  5,601. 


In  the  belief  that  the  state  of  Justice  and  Peace  among  nations  can  be  main- 
tained only  when  the  preponderance  of  military  power  has  been  gathered  into 
the  hands  of  the  pacific  peoples,  and  that  until  such  a  transfer  of  the  balance  of 
military  power  has  been  effected  the  safety  of  no  nation  is  assured,  the  National 
Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Patriotic  Education  has  been  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  the  translation  of  the  patriotic  impulses  of  our  people  into 
an  effective  national  spirit,  in  order  that  a  united  and  strengthened  America  shall 
emerge  which,  by  its  preponderant  power  acting  upon  the  side  of  peace,  shall 
discourage  aggression  and  insure  the  stability  of  the  world. — Creed  of  the  Patri- 
otic Instruction  Society. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
MILITARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  CIVIL  INSTITUTIONS 

THE  assistance  given  to  state  and  private  institutions  of 
learning  by  the  Government  in  the  nature  of  allotment  of  Fed- 
eral land  and  funds,  the  loan  of  ordnance,  and  the  detail  of 
Army  officers  as  professors  of  military  science  and  tactics  is 
governed  by  statutes  enacted  in  1862,  1888,  1891,  1893,  1904 
1909,  and  1916. 

The  need  of  general  military  education  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  was  emphasized  so  forcibly  through  the  lack  of 
trained  officers  and  men,  that  Congress,  July  2,  1862,  passed 
a  measure  advocated  by  Representative  Morrill,  of  Vermont, 
donating  grants  of  land  to  each  state  which  would  include  mili- 
tary tactics  in  the  curriculum  of  its  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
Colleges.  Subsequent  Acts  authorized  the  loan  of  arms  and 
equipment,  the  donation  of  Federal  funds  based  upon  enrollment, 
and  the  detail  of  officers  as  instructors.  At  present  100  officers 
from  the  active  list  and  an  unlimited  number  from  the  retired 
list  may  be  detailed  to  land-grant  colleges  and  private  institu- 
tions of  learning.  Forty-eight  officers  are  detailed,  one  for  each 
state,  under  the  Morrill  Act  and  fifty-two  are  detailed  by  popu- 
lation to  colleges  wherein  courses  in  military  science  and  tactics 
are  taught. 

These  institutions  will  play  an  important  part  in  supplying 
candidates  to  fill  the  vacancies  as  Second  Lieutenants  during 
the  next  five  years. 

The  following  classifications  are  based  upon  the  reports  of 
the  General  Staff  officers  who  inspect  these  institutions 
annually  in  April  and  May. 

198 


MILITARY  INSTRUCTION 


199 


EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS  AT  WHICH  OFFICERS  OF  THE  ARMY  ARE  DETAILED  AS  PROFESSORS  OJ 
MILITARY   SCIENCE  AND  TACTICS. 


State. 


Name  of  Institution. 


Class. 


Arizona     ....      University  of  Arizona,  Tucson C 

Arkansas  ....      Ouachita  College,  Arkadelphia C 

University  of  Arkansas,  Fayetteville C 

California.     .     .     .      'University  of  California,  Berkeley  (1914,  1915,  1916)     ...  C 

Colorado  ....      State  Agricultural  College  of  Colorado,  Fort  Collins  ....  C 

Connecticut  .     .     .      Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Storrs C 

Delaware       .     .     .      Delaware  College,  Newark C 

Florida      ....      University  of  Florida,  Gainesville C 

Georgia     ....      Georgia  Military  College,  Milledgeville C 

North  Georgia  Agricultural  College,  Dahlonega MC 

University  of  Georgia,  Athens C 

Hawaii      ....      The  Kamehameha  Schools.  Honolulu C 

Idaho University  of  Idaho,  Moscow C 

Illinois      ....      'University  of  Illinois,  Urbana  (1914,  1913, 1916)      ....  C 

Indiana     ....      Concordia  College,  Fort  Wayne C 

University  of  Notre  Dame,  Notre  Dame C 

Purdue  University,  La  Fayette C 

Iowa State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City C 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Ames.     .  C 
Kansas     ....      'Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Manhattan  (1914,  1915, 

1916)  C 

Kentucky ....      State  University,  Lexington C 

Louisiana ....      Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  C 

College,  Baton  Rouge. 

Maine University  of  Maine,  Orono C 

Maryland.     .     .     .      *St.  John's  College,  Annapolis  (1905,  1909,  1910,  1915,  1916)     .  MC 

Maryland  Agricultural  College,  College  Park MC 

Massachusetts     .     .      Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amherst C 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston C 

Michigan.      .     .     .      Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Lansing C 

Minnesota      .      .      .      'University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis  (1914,  1915,  1916)    .      .  C 

Mississippi     .     .     .      Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Agricultural  MC 

College. 

Missouri   ....      'University  of  Missouri,  Columbia  (1914,  1915,  1916)     ...  C 

Montana  ....      Montana  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Bozeman  C 

Nebraska       .     .     .      University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln C 

Nevada     ....      University  of  Nevada,  Reno C 

New  Hampshire  .     .      New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  C 

Durham. 

New  Jersey    .     .     .      Rutgers  Scientific  School,  New  Brunswick C 

New  Mexico  .     .     .      New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  State  C 

College. 

New  York      .     .     .      'Cornell  University.  Ithaca  (1914,  1915) C 

North  Carolina   .     .      North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  West  C 

Raleigh. 

North  Dakota     .     .      North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Agricultural  College       .     .  C 

Ohio *Ohio  State  University ;  Columbus  (1916) C 

Ohio  Northern  University,  Ada C 

Wilberforce  University,  Wilberforce C 

Oklahoma      .     .     .      Oklahoma  Agricultural  College,  Stillwater C 

Oregon      ....      Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Corvallis C 

Pennsylvania.     .     .      Pennsylvania  Military  College,  Chester MC 

Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College C 

Porto  Rico     .     .     .      University  of  Porto  Rico,  San  Juan C 

Rhode  Island      .     .      Rhode  Island  State  College,  Kingston C 

South  Carolina    .     .      The  Citadel,  Charleston  (1904,  1905,  1908,  1909,  1910,  1911,  MC 

1913,  1913,  1914,  1913  ,1916). 

Clemson  Agricultural  College,  Clemson  College MC 

South  Dakota     .     .      South  Dakota  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts, 

Brookings.  MC 

Tennessee      .     .     .      University  of  Tennessee,  Knoxville C 

Texas 'Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas,  College  Station  MC 

(1910,  1911,  igia,  1913,  1914,  1915.  1916). 


200 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


EDnCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS CONTINUED 


State. 

Name  of  Institution. 

Class. 

Utah  .  .  . 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  Logan     

C 
MC 

C 
MC 

MC 
C 
C 
C 
C 
C 

Vermont  .... 

Virginia  .  .  .  . 

Washington  .  .  . 

West  Virginia  .-  . 
Wisconsin  .  .  . 
Wyoming.  .  .  . 

'Norwich  University,  Northneld  (1904,  1005,  igo6,  1007,  igoS, 
igog,  igio,  ign,  igia,  igi3,  igi4,  igis,  igi6). 
'University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agricultural  College,  Bur- 
lington (igis,  igi6). 
'Virginia  Military  Institute,  Lexington  (igo4,  igos,  igo6,  igo?, 
igoS,  1900,  igio,  ign,  igi2,  igis,  igi4,  1915,  1916). 
Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  Blacksburg       

*State  College  of  Washington,  Pullman  (igi6)      

University  of  Washington,  Seattle   

West  Virginia  University,  Morgantown      

'University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison  (1915,  1916)   

University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie     

MILITARY   SCHOOLS 


State. 


Name  of  Institution. 


Class. 


Alabama  . 
California . 


Georgia 


Illinois 
Indiana     . 

Kentucky . 
Minnesota 


Missouri 


Nebraska 
New  Mexico 


New  York 


North  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
Tennessee.  . 


Texas  .     . 
Virginia    . 

Wisconsin . 


Marion  Institute,  Marion 

The  Harvard  School,  Los  Angeles 

The  San  Diego  Army  and  Navy  Academy,  Pacific  Beach     . 

Hitchcock  Military  Academy,  San  Rafael 

Mount  Tamalpais  Military  Academy,  San  Rafael      .... 

Marist  College,  Atlanta 

Gordon  Institute,  Barnesville 

Georgia  Military  Academy,  College  Park 

Riverside  Military  Academy,  Gainesville 

'Western  Military  Academy,  Alton  (1914,  1915,  1916)    .     . 
'Culver  Military  Academy,  Culver  (1906,  1907,  1908,  1909, 

1910,  1911,  1912,  igis,  igi4,  1915,  igi6). 
'Kentucky  Military  Institute,  Lyndon  (igi4,  igis,  1916)    .     . 
'College  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Paul  (1908,  1909,  1915,  1916)    . 
'Shattuck  School,  Faribault  (1004,  1006,  igo?,  1908,  igog,  1912, 

1913,  igi4,  igis)- 

'Wentworth  Military  Academy,  Lexington  (igi4,  igis,  1916)  . 
'Kemper  Military  School,  Boonville  (1914,  1915, 1916)  . 
Agricultural  School  of  the  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 
'New  Mexico  Military  Institute,  Roswell  (1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 

1913,  igi4,  1915,  1916). 

Xavier  High  School,  New  York  City 

'St.  John's  School,  Manlius  (igo4,  1905,  igo6,  igo?,  1908,  igog, 

1910,  1911,  igia,  igi3,  1914, 1915,  igi6). 
'New  York  Military  Academy,  Cornwall  on  Hudson  (1914, 

igiS,  igr6). 

Bingham  School,  Asheville 

Bailey  Military  Institute,  Greenwood 

Columbia  Military  Academy,  Columbia 

Tennessee  Military  Institute,  Sweetwater 

Sewanee  Military  Academy,  Sewanee 

Castle  Heights  School,  Lebanon 

West  Texas  Military  Academy,  San  Antonio 

Fork  Union  Military  Academy,  Fork  Union 

Staunton  Military  Academy,  Staunton 

Northwestern  Military  and  Naval  Academy,  Lake  Geneva  . 
'St.  John's  Military  Academy,  Delafield  (ign,  1912, 1913, 1914, 

1915,  1916). 


M 
SM 
M 
M 
SM 
SM 
M 
M 
M 
M 

M 

M 
M 

M 

M 
M 
M 

SM 
M 

M 

M 

M 
M 
M 
M 

'M' 

SM 
M 
M 
M 


MILITARY  INSTRUCTION  201 

MILITARY  ACADEMIES  AT  WHICH   OFFICERS  ARE  DETAILED  UNDER   SECTION   1360,  R.   S.,  AND  THE 
ACTS  OF  CONGRESS  APPROVED  MAY  4,  1880:  AUG.  6,  1894;  FEB.  26.  1901;  AND  APR.  21,  1904. 


State. 

Name  of  Institution. 

Class. 

Florida 

Florida  Military  Academy,  Jacksonville     

SM 

The  Morgan  Park  Academy,  Morgan  Park      

SM 

Missouri  Military  Academy,  Mexico     

M 

Wenonah  Military  Academy,  Wenonah      

SM 

Ohio               .     .     . 

Miami  Military  Institute,  Germantown      

M 

R]arks*f>"C  TtfUitary  Aca/iemy,  Blackstone  ,     , 

SM 

CLASS  M  C. — Colleges  and  universities  (including  land-grant  institutions)  where  the  curricu- 
lum is  sufficiently  advanced  to  carry  with  it  a  degree,  where  the  students  are  habitually  in  uni- 
form, where  the  average  age  of  the  students  on  graduation  is  not  less  than  21  years,  where  military 
discipline  is  constantly  maintained,  and  where  one  of  the  leading  objects  is  the  development  of 
the  student  by  means  of  military  drill  and  by  regulating  his  daily  conduct  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  military  discipline. 

CLASS  M. — Essentially  military  institutions  where  the  curriculum  is  not  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  carry  with  it  a  degree  or  where  the  average  age  of  the  students  on  graduation  is  less 
than  21  years. 

CLASS  C. — Colleges  and  universities  (including  land-grant  institutions)  not  essentially 
military  where  the  curriculum  is  sufficiently  advanced  to  carry  with  it  a  degree  and  where  the 
average  age  of  the  students  on  graduation  is  not  less  than  21  years. 

CLASS  S  M. — Institutions  not  included  in  any  of  the  classes  mentioned  above. 
'Institutions  whose  students  have  exhibited  the  greatest  application  and  proficiency  in  mili- 
tary training  and  knowledge  during  the  academic  year  are  designated  annually  as  "  distinguished 
colleges,  and  honor  schools."  An  asterisk  against  the  name  of  an  institution  indicates  that  it  is 
one  of  those  institutions  that  are  now  so  designated,  the  year  or  years  in  which  it  has  been  so 
designated  being  placed  after  the  name  of  the  institution. 

The  President  is  authorized  to  appoint  each  year  twenty 
students  from  the  distinguished  and  honor  colleges  as  cadets 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy.  He  is  also  authorized 
to  give  preference  to  an  "honor"  graduate  of  each  distinguished 
college  for  appointment  as  Second  Lieutenant  in  the  Army,  to 
fill  existing  vacancies  July  1st.  An  "honor"  graduate  is  one 
whose  attainments  in  scholarship  have  been  so  marked  as  to 
merit  the  approbation  of  the  Professor  of  Military  Science  and 
Tactics  and  the  President  of  the  College. 

The  minimum  enrollment  is  100  for  class  MC  and  M,  and  150 
for  class  C  and  SM. 

The  main  object  is  to  qualify  students  to  be  company  officers 
of  Infantry,  Volunteers,  or  Militia.  The  courses  of  instruction 
are  both  practical  and  theoretical.  Three  hours  per  week  or 
an  equivalent  of  84  one-hour  periods  per  year  for  two  years, 
with  not  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  time  being  devoted  to 
practical  instruction  and  field  training,  is  required. 


202  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Students  are  organized  into  companies,  battalions,  and  regi- 
ments of  infantry,  known  as  cadet  corps.  Batteries  of  artillery 
and  troops  of  cavalry  are  permitted  at  certain  institutions 
by  special  authority  of  the  War  Department.  Military  bands 
are  also  maintained.  Upon  occasions  of  military  ceremony, 
drills,  guard  duty,  and  other  military  instruction,  students  are 
required  to  appear  in  the  uniform  prescribed  by  the  institution. 


"Yes;  in  spite  of  the  coming  of  the  Christ,  and  of  all  the  myriad  forces  for 
good,  man  is  still  a  fighting  animal.  Notwithstanding  our  advanced  civilization, 
he  yet  kills  and  maims  and  robs  and  plunders.  This  has  been  his  nature  from 
the  beginning,  and  this  it  is  likely  to  be  for  long,  long  ages  to  come.  In  the  pri- 
mordial forests  he  wrestled  with  his  savage  brother,  hand  to  hand,  for  self  and 
family;  a  little  later  he  gave  heroic  battle  for  his  clan;  and  now  he  fights  collec- 
tively for  his  nation.  And  the  nation  is  only  an  elaboration  of  individuals.  It 
has  the  same  passions,  noble  and  ignoble,  as  the  individuals  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. In  our  efforts  to  determine  what  we  need,  we  should  accept  the  teach- 
ings of  history  as  they  are  and  not  as  we  would  have  them.  True,  man's  nature 
does  change,  and  it  changes  for  the  better,  but  it  is  only  by  slow,  painful,  and 
imperceptible  degrees,  such  as  the  Psalmist  had  in  mind  when  he  said,  'A  thou- 
sand years  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  are  but  as  yesterday  when  it  is  past  and  as  a 
watch  in  the  night.' " — From  speech  made  by  Honorable  James  J.  Britt,  of  North 
Carolina,  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  December  17,  1915. 


CHAPTER  XXIH 
MILITARY  CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Major  General  Leonard  Wood  has  become  the  leading  ex- 
ponent of  training  camps  for  students  and  business  men, 
and  in  advocating  universal  military  and  naval  training  in 
youth.  In  the  spring  of  1913  at  his  recommendation  and 
with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  War  two  training  camps, 
one  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  and  one  at  Monterey,  Cal.,  were  organ- 
ized for  the  benefit  of  college  students  who  were  desirous  of  thus 
spending  then*  summer  vacation.  This  was  a  long  stroke  in  the 
direction  of  a  campaign  of  military  education  and  enlighten- 
ment destined  to  open  the  eyes  of  an  indifferent  Congress  to  our 
military  unpreparedness  and  lack  of  a  national  defense  policy. 

The  aid  and  support  given  by  the  presidents  of  colleges  and 
universities  have  been  invaluable.  At  these  camps  ninety  col- 
leges were  represented  by  one  or  more  students  each,  and 
their  experience  and  military  training  produced  a  most  salutary 
effect  in  awakening  a  sense  of  responsibility  and  culpability  for 
the  conditions  of  our  military  unpreparedness.  This  sentiment 
crystallized  in  New  York  City,  November  19,  1913,  at  an  as- 
sembly of  college  presidents  and  camp  students  by  the  organiz- 
ation of  the  "  Society  of  the  National  Reserve  Corps."  Prince- 
ton, Harvard,  Yale,  Michigan  University,  Virginia  Military 
Institute,  University  of  Illinois,  University  of  Alabama,  Lehigh 
University,  California  University,  and  other  prominent  insti- 
tutions were  represented  by  their  presidents.  These  eminent 
educators  heartily  approved  of  this  innovation  of  the  War  De- 
partment and  believe  that  the  student  camps  of  military  in- 
struction will  become  very  popular  and  a  strong  and  permanent 

203 


204     '       MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

feature  for  military  advancement  of  the  country.    There  were 
four  such  camps  in  1916. 

The  Society's  constitution  is  a  clear-cut,  business-like  exposi- 
tion of  the  military  obligations  of  citizenship. 


CONSTITUTION   SOCIETY   OF   THE   NATIONAL   RESERVE   CORPS 

I. — 1.  Being  convinced  of  the  physical  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  living  a  part  of  the  year  in  the  strenuous,  healthful,  open 
air  life  of  a  military  camp,  particularly  to  students,  whose  pur- 
suits have  kept  them  indoors  and  leading  a  comparatively  in- 
active life  for  considerable  periods,  and  the  knowledge  gained 
of  marching,  camping,  care  of  the  person  and  camp  sanitation 
with  minimum  expense;  and, 

2.  Desiring  to  increase  the  economic  value  and  business  effi- 
ciency of  our  young  men  by  giving  them  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  principles  of  command,  organization  and  administra- 
tion, and  experience  of  value  of  discipline  obtaining  in  the  mod- 
ern armies;  and, 

3.  Realizing  that  wars  between  nations  are  liable  to  occur 
now,  or  in  the  future,  even  as  they  have  in  the  past;  and, 

4.  That,  notwithstanding  our  best  efforts  to  preserve  peace 
with  right  and  honor,  our  own  country  may  become  involved 
in  a  war,  either  of  defense  against  attack,  or  of  offense  against 
any  nation  that  may  violate  the  rights  secured  us  under  the 
Constitution,  laws  and  treaties  of  the  United  States ;  and, 

5.  Knowing  the  above  and  firmly  believing  that  our  present 
state  of  preparation  and  means  of  meeting  such  an  emergency 
are  inadequate  and  will  lead  either  to  disaster  or  to  useless 
waste  of  men,  material  and  money;  and, 

6.  Further  knowing  that  the  above  state  of  affairs  should  be 
remedied  and  realizing  that  it  is  each  man's  duty  to  his.  country 
to  do  his  own  proper  share  to  effect  such  a  remedy; 

7.  We,  the  undersigned  young  men  of  America,  do  hereby 
form  and  organize  the  Society  of  the  National  Reserve  Corps 


MILITARY  CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION          205 

of  the  United  States,  and  do  hereby  pledge  ourselves,  individu- 
ally and  collectively,  from  purely  patriotic  motives,  to  do  our 
utmost  without  hope  of  reward  and  without  fear  or  favor  to 
further  the  objects  of  said  Corps  and  work  for  its  principles  as 
set  forth  below. 

II. — The  objects  of  the  Society  of  the  National  Reserve  Corps 
will  be  (a)  to  perpetuate  the  system  of  students'  military-in- 
struction camps  and  to  encourage  a  large  attendance;  (b)  to 
encourage  thorough  knowledge  thro  ugh  the  country  of  (1)  mili- 
tary policy,  (2)  military  history  and  (3)  military  organization; 
and  to  have  these  objects  included  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
various  colleges;  (c)  to  individually  train  ourselves  to  the  best 
of  our  ability  to  be  fitted  to  serve  with  best  effect  in  case  of 
need,  in  such  capacity  as  our  condition  at  that  time  may 
properly  permit;  (d)  to  establish  and  support  a  sound  national 
military  policy  which  shall  include  the  maintenance  of  a  highly 
efficient  Regular  Army  sufficient  for  the  peace  needs  of  the  Na- 
tion and  a  well  organized  and  efficient  militia,  each  supported 
by  adequate  reserves. 

III. — Eligible  for  membership,  Class  A:  these  men  who  have 
attended  one  or  more  students'  military-instruction  camps  as 
organized  by  the  War  Department.  Class  B :  all  other  citizens 
of  the  United  States  in  good  standing,  subject  to  rules  and  by- 
laws of  the  Society. 

The  success  of  the  1913  students'  camps  prompted  the  re- 
newal of  the  invitation  for  1914.  The  response  was  so  favorably 
received  as  to  justify  the  organization  of  four  camps  geographi- 
cally distributed  over  the  United  States. 

Dr.  Henry  Sturgis  Drinker,  President  of  Lehigh  University, 
thus  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  War  relative  to  his  personal 
visit  at  a  student  camp  of  instruction  in  1913 : 

"  When  in  May  last  I  received  the  letter  sent  out  by  General 
Leonard  Wood,  Chief  of  Staff  of  the  United  States  Army,  to  the 
Presidents  of  our  American  Universities  and  Colleges,  stating 


206  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

that  the  Secretary  of  War  had  decided  to  hold  during  the  fol- 
lowing summer  two  experimental  camps  of  instruction  for 
students  of  such  institutions,  I  received  the  word  with  hearty 
appreciation  of  the  immense  good  to  our  young  men  likely  to 
result  from  such  an  establishment.  Of  all  things  that  the  Amer- 
ican youth  of  to-day  needs,  and  needs  most,  is  the  advantage 
resulting  from  an  experience  of  rigorous  self-imposed  discipline, 
as  the  young  men  joining  these  camps  would  go  of  their  own  no- 
tion. Among  young  men  there  are  especially  two  classes  to 
whom  such  an  experience  would  be  most  valuable — those  com- 
ing from  well-to-do  indulgent  parents  and  those  who,  lacking 
parental  control,  have  developed  an  independence  of  action 
not  consistent  in  all  respects  with  the  proper  conventions  of 
society  and  life.  Nothing  could  be  better  for  these  men  or  for 
any  others  of  our  youth,  than  to  be  thrown  together  in  a  body 
for  a  time  under  the  careful  supervision  of  the  splendid  men  to 
whom  have  been  delegated  the  care  and  supervision  of  our 
boys  in  these  camps — officers  of  the  army,  devoted  to  the  service 
of  their  country,  gentlemen  of  high  ideals,  thorough  training, 
and  intensely  and  patriotically  interested  hi  the  work.  It  is 
an  enormous  error  to  consider  or  look  on  these  camps  as  training 
schools  simply  to  develop  a  measure  of  military  efficiency.  No 
man  has  better  expressed  the  great  value  of  systematic  military 
training  than  Price  Collier  in  his  *  Germany  and  the  Germans,' 
where  he  gives  the  German  system  credit  for  far  more  in  the 
national  advancement  than  mere  military  preparedness.  As 
he  well  says,  'one  can  understand  that  Germany  has  little 
patience  with  the  confused  thinking  which  maintains  that 
military  training  only  makes  soldiers  and  only  incites  to  martial 
ambitions;  when,  on  the  contrary,  she  sees  that  it  makes  youths 
better  and  stronger  citizens,  and  produces  that  self-respect, 
self-control  and  cosmopolitan  sympathy  which  more  than  aught 
else  lessen  the  chance  of  conflict.'  Soldiers  and  sailors  train 
themselves  and  train  others  first  of  all  to  self-control,  not  to  war. 
It  is  a  pity  that  a  compulsory  service  has  come  to  mean  merely 


A.  &  M.  College  cadets.    Texas  University,  Bryan,  Texas 


Staff  officers,  St.  John's  College,  Annapolis,  Md. 


Western  Military  Academy,  Alton,  Illinois 


Battalion  of  cadets,  Culver  Military  Academy,  Culver,  Ind. 


MILITARY  CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION          207 

training  to  fight.  In  Germany,  at  any  rate,  it  means  far  more 
than  that.  Two  generations  of  Germans  have  been  taught 
to  take  care  of  themselves  physically  without  drawing  a  sword. 
It  is  rather  a  puzzling  commentary  upon  the  growth  of  de- 
mocracy, that  in  America  and  England,  where  most  has  been 
conceded  to  the  majority,  there  is  least  inclination  on  their  part 
to  accept  the  necessary  personal  burden  of  keeping  themselves 
fit,  not  necessarily  for  war  but  for  peace,  by  accepting  universal 
and  compulsory  training. 

"Physical  training,  compulsory  on  all  students  in  all  classes, 
properly  supervised  by  competent  directors  of  physical  educa- 
tion, is  becoming  the  rule  in  our  colleges  for  men  and  women,  and 
we  all  recognize  the  immense  advance  that  has  been  made  in 
this  respect  in  the  development  of  healthy,  strong-lunged  and 
strong-hearted  youths  and  maidens,  but  the  accentuation  of 
physical  training  with  a  measure  of  military  discipline  and  pro- 
vision is  a  further  great  step  in  advance. 

"I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  the  instruction  camp  at 
Gettysburg  and  again  the  second  camp  for  target  practice  at 
Mount  Gretna  to  which  the  boys  marched  from  Gettysburg, 
camping  by  the  way  and  learning  practically  how  to  take  care 
of  themselves  by  day  and  by  night  wh  Je  living  in  the  open  air. 
My  interest  in  these  visits  was,  of  course,  intensified  by  my  de- 
sire to  see  our  delegation  of  Lehigh  students  at  the  Camps  and 
the  fact  that  one  of  my  own  sons  was  there  with  my  hearty 
approval  and  encouragement  made  the  visits  especially  inter- 
esting to  me  personally.  I  could  see  nothing  to  criticize  and 
everything  to  commend  and  admire.  The  camp  arrangements, 
medical  care,  camp  hospital,  shower  baths,  living  tents,  were 
perfect  and  the  food  was  excellent,  all  at  small  cost.  The  boys 
were  carefully  instructed  in  the  principles  of  camp  sanitation 
and  the  proper  caring  for  and  disposal  of  excreta  and  of  waste 
from  the  kitchen;  this  is  information  of  the  highest  importance 
and  is  information  that  the  average  citizen  never  gets;  the  want 
of  it  has  cost  many  precious  lives  not  only  in  our  civil  and 


208  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Spanish  wars  but  it  is  felt  to-day  in  our  citizen  life.  I  slept  on  a 
cot  as  the  boys  did  in  the  nights  I  spent  at  the  camp  and  ate 
in  their  mess  tent  where  the  boys  and  officers  met  at  meals. 
I  was  impressed  with  the  cordiality  and  kindly  intercourse  be- 
tween the  officers  and  students  and  especially  with  the  intense 
interest  shown  by  the  young  men  in  all  their  exercises. 

"Rising  at  the  call  of  the  bugle  at  five  fifteen,  they  first  had 
open  air  setting  up  gymnastics  under  the  leadership  of  an  officer. 
Then  a  good  breakfast.  Then,  after  a  short  rest,  several  hours 
of  instruction  in  various  open  air  duties,  ending  with  a  lecture 
on  some  interesting  subject  from  one  of  the  officers  in  charge. 
The  afternoons  and  evenings  were  devoted  to  voluntary  ex- 
ercises or  to  sports  at  the  option  of  the  students.  So  keen  were 
they  for  voluntary  cavalry  drill,  fencing,  broadsword  practice, 
artillery  drill,  etc.,  that  on  one  day  I  was  there  I  heard  the 
Commandant  give  stringent  directions  to  the  officers  in  charge 
to  lessen  the  amount  of  this  voluntary  work  in  the  afternoon 
and  force  the  young  men  to  rest  and  recreation  for  a  change. 
The  camp  is  in  fact  a  training  school  for  manly  men  and  good 
citizens  with  the  best  of  good  influences.  Regular  work  in  the 
morning,  voluntary  engagements,  baseball  and  other  recreation 
in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  all  of  it  ideally  good  thorough 
training  with  healthful  sport  interspersed,  careful  but  not  op- 
pressive supervision  and  regulation,  absolutely  healthful  sur- 
roundings and  good  associations.  I  could  think  of  no  six  weeks 
that  could  be  spent  by  our  boys  to  better  advantage  to  them- 
selves and  with  better  promise  to  our  country  of  better  develop- 
ment of  good  manly  men  and  gentlemen. 

"I  found  over  fifty  universities  and  colleges  represented  by 
student  delegations,  among  them  most  of  the  leading  institu- 
tions of  the  east.  The  Western  institutions,  of  course,  sent 
then*  delegations  to  the  other  camp,  established  at  the  Presidio 
of  Monterey,  California,  and  I  saw  commendatory  notes  from 
the  Presidents  of  many  institutions  from  the  leaders  of  education 
in  our  country,  a  unanimous  expression  from  those  best  qualified 


MILITARY  CAMPS  OF  INSTRUCTION          209 

in  our  land  to  form  and  express  an  opinion  of  approval  of  the 
training  proposed. 

"The  country  owes  a  great  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  men  who 
devised  and  put  into  effect  this  experiment  for  the  benefit  of 
our  youth  and  it  is  greatly  to  be  hoped  that  it  may  go  on  and  be 
developed  and  enlarged  to  embrace  in  succeeding  years  as  many 
of  our  young  men  as  possible.  Our  university  and  college 
bred  youths  should  develop  as  a  class  into  leaders  of  our  people; 
surely  in  their  training  nothing  can  be  more  valuable  than  this 
hard  disciplinary  experience  in  obedience  and  regular  clean  liv- 
ing and,  if  with  it  all,  they  gain  some  knowledge  of  the  art  of 
war,  a  citizen  soldiery  is  not  an  armed  camp  and,  if  the  optim- 
istic doctrine  of  our  extreme  peace  advocates  is  correct,  that  if 
driven  to  war  we  can  rely  on  the  patriotism  and  efficiency  of 
our  citizens,  it  may  be  well  that  those  citizens  have  at  least 
some  appreciation  of  the  rudiments  of  the  duties  to  which 
they  may  be  suddenly  called.  I  come  of  Quaker  stock  and  all 
my  instincts  are  for  peace  but  I  believe  that  peace  will  be  the  more 
assured  to  our  beloved  nation  if  with  prudence  we  learn  to  know 
our  strength  and  to  conserve  it  for  our  good  and  the  good  of 
the  world,  rather  than  rely  on  the  present  existence  of  a  millenium 
that  we  pray  will  come  in  time  but  that  to-day  is  not  with  us." 

Another  gain  to  the  student  is  a  certain  increase  in  his  econ- 
omic value  due  to  the  increased  business  efficiency  acquired 
through  habits  of  discipline,  obedience,  self-control,  order, 
command,  and  the  study  of  organization  and  administration  as 
applied  in  first-class  modern  armies. 

The  benefit  of  these  camps  to  the  Nation  is  that  they  foster  a 
patriotic  spirit  without  which  a  nation  soon  loses  its  virility  and 
falls  into  decay;  they  spread  among  the  citizens  of  the  country 
a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  military  history,  military  policy, 
and  military  needs,  all  necessary  to  the  complete  education 
of  a  well-equipped  citizen  in  order  that  he  may  himself  form 
just  and  true  opinions  on  military  topics. 

The  student  camp  idea  was  extended  during  the  fall  of  1915 


210  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

to  include  Business  Men's  Camp  of  Instruction  at  Plattsburgh, 
N.  Y.;  Fort  Sheridan,  Illinois;  Monterey,  California;  Tacoma, 
Washington.  The  Plattsburg  camp  was  originally  planned  to 
accommodate  five  hundred.  The  enrollment,  however,  rapidy 
rose  to  thirteen  hundred  and  was  there  stopped.  Over  1,200 
business  and  professional  men,  artisans  and  merchants  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but  principally  from  New  England 
were  in  attendance. 

New  York  City  and  Chicago  were  represented  by  their  re- 
spective Mayors  and  several  high  officials  and  distinguished 
citizens. 

The  enrollment  for  the  1916  camps  indicate  that  30,000  to 
40,000  will  attend. 

Congress  by  the  Act  of  June  1, 1916  makes  it  possible  to  attend 
such  camps  at  the  expense  of  the  Government  instead  as  hereto- 
fore at  the  expense  of  the  individuals. 

Not  to  be  outdone  by  husbands,  brothers,  or  sons  the  women 
of  America  are  taking  up  the  military  instruction  camp  idea. 

The  "National  Service  School,"  composed  of  some  500  young 
society  women,  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  wives  of 
several  high  officers  of  the  United  States  Army,  Navy,  and  Ma- 
rine Corps,  opened  at  Chevy  Chase,  Md.,  May  1st,  to  continue 
two  weeks.  President  Wilson  delivered  an  address  to  the 
students.  The  uniform  prescribed  is  a  khaki  coat  and  skirt,  a 
khaki  hat  and  a  soldier's  hat.  Setting  up  exercises,  class  work 
drill,  lectures  and  a  few  hours  of  recreation  and  entertainment 
comprised  the  routine  for  each  day.  The  principal  feature 
of  the  instruction  is  surgical  dressing.  A  course  in  diet  cooking 
for  the  invalided  and  the  making  of  garments  for  hospital 
use  is  also  an  important  feature.  The  first  period  was  so 
successful  that  many  remained  for  a  second  period  of  two  weeks 
at  which  the  enrollment  was  from  twelve  different  states. 

A  similar  camp  was  held  in  New  York  City  suburbs  during 
June.  Other  womens'  camps  are  being  planned. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY 

THE  United  States  Navy  from  its  small  beginning  in  1775 
had  reached  third  place  in  naval  strength  of  world  powers  in 
1914.  Due  to  the  great  activity  in  naval  construction  abroad 
since  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War,  our  Navy  has  probably 
dropped  to  fifth  place  in  1916. 

Its  personnel  consists  of  about  2,800  officers  and  52,000  en- 
listed men,  not  including  the  Marine  Corps.  The  number 
and  tonnage  of  serviceable  ships  of  various  types  built,  building, 
and  authorized,  August  1,  1916,  is  as  indicated  in  the  following 
table  (as  well  as  a  comparative  study  of  the  warship  tonnage  of 
the  various  naval  powers  of  the  world  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  which  will  be  found  on  back  of  map  in  pocket 
of  cover). 

Our  Navy  was  established  in  1775  as  a  means  of  protecting 
the  coast  from  British  men-of-war.  The  original  Navy  De- 
partment officials  consisted  of  a  Committee  of  three,  Silas 
Deane,  John  Langdon,  and  Christopher  Gadsden.  They  were 
called  the  Marine  Committee.  In  December  it  was  enlarged 
to  include  one  member  from  each  colony.  This  Committee 
made  many  blunders  and  mistakes  through  lack  of  professional 
knowledge.  Congress  then  appointed  a  Committee  of  three 
experts  to  assist  the  Marine  Committee. 

A  few  armed  vessels  were  fitted  out  and  used  around  Boston 
to  capture  British  store  ships  and  transports. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Navy  Department  was  at  Philadel- 
phia, the  seat  of  the  National  Government.  In  1781  General 
Alexander  McDougall  of  New  York  was  appointed  Secretary 

211 


212 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


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THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  213 

of  the  Navy  under  the  old  Confederacy.  Esek  Hopkins  of 
Rhode  Island  was  the  first  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Contin- 
ental Navy. 

Thirteen  frigates  of  from  13  to  36  guns  had  been  built  and 
used  during  the  Revolution.  Two  had  been  destroyed  on  the 
Hudson  River  and  three  on  the  Delaware  without  getting  to 
sea.  The  remaining  eight  together  with  vessels  which  had  been 
purchased  were  captured  by  the  British.  After  the  war  there 
seemed  to  be  little  use  for  a  Navy  and  it  was  neglected.  In 
1793  depredations  by  Algerian  Corsairs  became  so  alarming 
that  President  Washington  in  a  message  to  Congress  stated: 
"if  we  desire  to  avoid  insult,  we  must  be  able  to  repel  it;  if  we 
desire  to  secure  peace  one  of  the  most  powerful  instruments  of 
our  prosperity,  it  must  be  known  that  we  are  at  all  times  ready 
for  war."  Congress  thereupon  appropriated  $700,000  for  cre- 
ating a  small  Navy  for  the  express  purpose  of  stopping  Algerian 
reprisals  of  our  merchant  marine. 

The  exploits  of  John  Paul  Jones,  a  Scottish-American 
naval  adventurer,  who  came  to  Virginia  in  1773,  and  who  won 
many  naval  engagements  against  the  British  during  the 
Revolution,  and  became  the  guiding  genius  of  the  embryo 
American  Navy,  have  won  for  him  lasting  honor  and  fame  not- 
withstanding he  later  abandoned  the  American  service  and 
served  in  the  navy  of  France  and,  later,  that  of  Russia.  His 
remains  now  rest  in  the  crypt  of  the  magnificent  chapel  at 
Annapolis,  having  been  conveyed  there  from  Paris  on  an 
American  man-of-war  a  few  years  ago. 

In  1798  war  with  France  seemed  imminent  and  Congress 
made  provision  on  land  and  sea  to  resist  an  invasion  by  France. 
Fortunately  war  was  averted. 

Congress  expressly  provided  that  should  peace  be  declared 
with  Algiers  the  construction  of  this  Navy  should  cease.  After 
the  capture  of  the  Philadelphia,  our  country  made  a  humiliating 
treaty  providing  for  the  payment  of  tribute  to  Algiers 
thus  affording  another  forceful  lesson  to  the  American  people 


214  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

as  to  the  folly  of  unpreparedness.  Work  was  stopped  not- 
withstanding England  and  France  were  at  war.  Washington's 
advice  and  counsel  were  repudiated  by  Congress  evidently  on 
the  assumption  that  the  United  States  was  immune  from  future 
wars. 

No  sooner  was  work  on  this  small  Navy  stopped  than  British 
cruisers  stopped  our  merchant  marine  and  took  off  seamen  on 
the  charge  of  being  British  subjects.  What  was  to  prevent? 
France  also  committed  depredations  upon  American  commerce 
under  a  decree  of  1797  which  virtually  was  a  declaration  of 
war.  This  decree  authorized  the  capture  of  American  vessels 
under  certain  conditions  and  declared  that  any  American 
found  on  board  a  hostile  ship  though  placed  there  without  his 
consent  (by  impressment)  should  be  hanged. 

Congress  became  alarmed  again  and  authorized  the  com- 
pletion of  six  frigates  previously  ordered.  One  of  these,  the 
Constitution  (44  guns)  which  won  many  victories,  is  still  afloat 
in  Boston  Harbor  at  Portsmouth  Navy  Yard. 

In  1812  when  war  against  Great  Britain  was  declared,  our 
Navy  consisted  of  twenty-one  vessels,  a  totally  inadequate 
Navy  with  which  to  cope  with  England.  Six  schooners  were 
purchased  on  Lake  Ontario  and  converted  into  a  merchant 
marine  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  British  were  building  war  vessels  at  Kingston,  Ontario, 
making  it  absolutely  necessary  to  maintain  this  squadron  on  the 
Great  Lakes.  Congress  also  authorized  several  gun  ships  and 
six  first-class  frigates,  six  sloops  of  war  and  as  many  ships  on  the 
Lakes  as  the  President  deemed  necessary.  Congress  also  offered 
to  persons  who  by  torpedo  or  other  contrivances  should  burn, 
sink,  or  destroy  any  British  armed  vessel,  rewards  of  half  of  their 
value  in  money.  Several  states  passed  legislature  acts  to  build 
warships  and  donate  them  to  the  Government. 

You  are  all  familiar  with  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie  and 
his  laconic  report  "we  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours, 
two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner  and  one  sloop."  The  Navy 


THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  215 

came  out  of  the  war  with  a  good  record  of  achievement  and 
reputation  for  gallantry  which  will  live  forever  in  the  annals  of 
American  history.  Visitors  to  Annapolis  may  see  Admiral 
Perry's  improvised  flag,  "Don't  give  up  the  Ship"  and  a  British 
Royal  Standard  the  only  one  ever  captured  by  any  nation,  a 
trophy  of  the  War  of  1812. 

There  are  chapters  in  the  history  of  that  war  which  are  care- 
fully left  out  of  the  United  States  histories  you  and  I  have 
studied  which,  if  accurately  narrated,  would  bring  the  blush 
of  shame  to  the  American  cheek. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  the  Navy  had  adroitly 
been  placed  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Government  for  imme- 
diate use.  The  total  number  of  vessels  of  all  classes  belonging 
to  the  Navy  was  ninety,  carrying  or  designed  to  carry  2,415 
guns.  Only  forty-two  ships  were  hi  commission.  Twenty- 
eight  ships,  having,  in  the  aggregate,  874  guns,  were  lying  in 
ports  dismantled.  None  of  them  could  be  made  ready  for  sea 
in  less  than  several  weeks'  time  and  some  of  them  would  require 
at  least  six  months. 

The  most  of  them  in  commission  had  been  sent  to  distant 
seas  with  stores  for  a  squadron  there.  Such  was  the  utter  power- 
less condition  of  the  Navy  to  assist  in  preserving  the  life  of  the 
Republic  when  Isaac  Toucey  of  Connecticut  resigned  the  office 
of  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  Gideon  Welles  of  the  same  state  on 
March  4,  1861. 

Secretary  Welles  and  Assistant  Secretary  Fox  put  forth  great 
energy  in  the  creation  of  a  Navy  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the 
times.  At  the  beginning  of  July,  four  months  after  President 
Lincoln's  administration  came  into  power,  there  were  forty- 
three  armed  vessels  engaged  in  the  blockade  of  the  Southern 
ports  and  in  the  defense  of  the  Coast  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
continent. 

These  were  divided  into  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  squadrons. 
Before  the  close  of  1861,  the  Secretary  purchased  and  put  into 
commission  no  less  than  137  vessels  and  had  contracted  for  the 


216  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

building  of  a  large  number  of  steamships  of  a  substantial  class, 
suitable  for  performing  continuous  duty  off  the  Coasts  in  all 
weathers.  The  Secretary  recommended  the  appointment  of  a 
competent  board  to  inquire  into  and  report  on  the  subject  of 
iron-clad  vessels.  Calls  for  recruits  for  the  Navy  were  promptly 
complied  with  and  for  the  want  of  men  no  vessel  was  ever  de- 
tained more  than  two  or  three  days.  Since  March  1st,  259  offi- 
cers had  resigned  or  been  dismissed,  Their  places  were  all  soon 
filled;  since  many  who  had  retired  to  civil  pursuits  came  forward 
and  again  offered  their  services  to  their  country  and  were  re- 
commissioned. 

The  services  of  the  Navy  during  the  Civil  War  were  not  appre- 
ciated by  the  people  as  fully  as  they  deserved.  They  were  often 
subservient  to  the  Army  in  its  operations  near  rivers.  On  the 
ocean  the  services  of  the  Navy  were  chiefly  required  in  blockad- 
ing ports  or  in  bombarding  coast  defenses.  The  Confederates 
had  no  Navy  proper,  only  flotillas  of  gunboats  and  rams  on 
rivers  and  in  harbors  and  not  a  ship  on  the  ocean  excepting  a 
few  roving  piratical  vessels  depredating  upon  American  com- 
merce. 

There  were  few  occasions  for  purely  naval  battles.  But  in 
the  sphere  in  which  the  Navy  was  called  upon  to  act,  it  performed 
service  of  incalculable  value  and  deserves  equal  honor  and  grati- 
tude with  the  Army.  The  service  during  the  war  was  more 
exhausting  and  really  wonderful  in  operations  and  results  than 
that  of  any  other  Navy  in  the  world.  The  Navy  had  been  re- 
duced to  the  smallest  proportions  during  the  preceding  fifty 
years  of  peace  and  kept  in  existence  only  for  the  protection  of 
the  continually  expanding  commerce  of  the  Republic. 

When  the  Civil  War  began  the  Navy  numbered  only  7,600 
enlisted  men  and  322  officers.  Natives  of  Southern  States  to 
the  number  of  60  resigned  their  commissions  to  serve  the  Con- 
federacy. Yet  before  an  adequate  force  could  be  organized 
and  vessels  prepared,  the  blockade  of  several  southern  ports  was 
prdered  and  was  maintained.  Merchant  vessels  were  converted 


Service  dress  uniform  of  Lieutenant,  Junior  Grade,  U.  S.  Navy 


Sg     ^^ 


Admiral  of  the  Navy.      Admiral  Y/ce  Admira/       Rear Admire?/. 


Captain  Commander         L/eut  Commander  Midshipman. 


L  /eutenan  /         L  /eufenan  /  Junior     Ens/gn 


midshipman  2  ^Cl 


Ch  Boatswain.          Ch  Carpenter 
Ch  Gunner  Ch  Sail  maker 

Ch*  Machinist          Ch  Pharmacist 


Boatswain.  Carpenter 

Gunner  Sat/ma/fer 

machinist  Pharmacist 

Pay  C/erk 


Insignia  of  rank  and  grade  U.  S.  Navy  on  sleeve 


THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  217 

into  warships  and  volunteers  from  that  service  filled  the  va- 
cant offices. 

At  the  beginning  there  were  3,844  artisans  and  laborers,  at 
the  end  there  were  16,880  exclusive  of  about  an  equal  number 
employed  in  private  shipyards  under  contract.  During  the 
four  years,  208  war  vessels  were  constructed  and  fitted  out  and 
418  vessels  were  purchased  and  converted  into  warships.  Of 
these,  613  were  steamers,  the  whole  costing  nearly  $19,000,000. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  the  strength  of  the  Navy  was  51,500 
officers  and  men  and  it  was  unsurpassed  by  any  navy  in  the 
world. 

PRESENT  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  NAVAL  FORCES 

The  principal  naval  force  of  the  United  States  is  divided 
into  three  active  fleets,  each  under  a  Commander-m-Chief  with 
rank  of  Admiral. 

The  Atlantic  Fleet  covers  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  tributary  waters. 

The  Pacific  Fleet  covers  North  and  South  America,  Hawaii 
and  Samoa. 

The  Asiatic  Fleet  covers  the  western  Pacific,  the  Philippines, 
Guam,  and  the  Indian  oceans. 

Vessels  on  special  service  in  Central  American  waters  and  on 
similar  duty  are  not  attached  to  any  fleet,  their  movements  be- 
ing controlled  by  the  Navy  Department  direct  from  Washington. 

Special  service  squadrons  are  organized  from  time  to  time  as 
occasion  demands. 

STATUS   OF   SHIPS 

Ships  of  the  Navy  are  divided  into  two  classes,  viz:  In  Com- 
mission and  Out  of  Commission.  Ships  in  commission  may  be 
in  either  one  of  three  conditions,  as  follows : 

In  Full  Commission — when  fully  officered,  manned  and  ready 
in  all  respects  for  service. 


218  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

In  Commission  in  Reserve — Ships  maintained  at  some  desig- 
nated navy  yard  or  other  suitable  place  with  reduced  crews  but 
ready  for  sea  on  short  notice. 

In  Commission  in  Ordinary — Ships  maintained  at  some  desig- 
nated navy  yard  under  the  commandant  and  in  condition 
for  service  if  needed,  with  officers  and  men  on  board  necessary 
for  their  proper  care. 


ORGANIZATION   OF  THE   FLEET 

The  standard  fleet  in  time  of  peace  consists  of  the  following 
vessels : 

(a)  One  battleship,  as  the  flag  ship  of  the  Commander-in-Chief . 
(6)  Four  divisions  of  four  battleships  each. 

(c)  As  many  divisions  of  armored  cruisers  as  may  be  desig- 
nated by  the  department. 

(d)  Such  less  important  military  ships  as  are  ordered  to  the 
fleet.    These  are  organized  in  divisions  as  circumstances  render 
practicable  or  advisable. 

(e)  Auxiliaries  as  may  be  ordered. 

(/)  Torpedo  and  submarine  flotillas  are  attached  to  the  fleet 
when  practicable.  As  far  as  practicable  a  tender  is  assigned  to 
each  torpedo  flotilla  and  to  each  submarine  group. 

An  officer  commands  each  flotilla  and  the  tenders  and  other 
vessels  attached  are  under  his  command.  His  pennant  is 
habitually  flown  abroad  the  most  suitable  tender. 

Each  torpedo  and  submarine  flotilla  is  composed  of  as  many 
groups  of  torpedo  vessels  and  submarines  as  found  advisable, 
the  tactical  unit  ordinarily  being  five  vessels,  under  a  group 
Commander. 

The  tender  assigned  to  each  submarine  group  furnishes  quarters 
for  the  submarine  crews  and  officers. 

The  tenders  are  the  bases  of  the  flotillas  and  groups,  all  ac- 
counts being  kept  on  board  these  vessels,  as  well  as  stores,  funds, 
provisions,  and  spare  parts. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  219 


RESERVE   FLEETS 

When  conditions  warrant  it  a  reserve  fleet  is  maintained  on 
each  coast  of  the  United  States  or  elsewhere,  such  fleet  to  be 
composed  of  ships  in  reserve.  The  ships  of  such  a  fleet,  so  far 
as  possible,  are  assembled  at  some  navy  yard  or  other  appropri- 
ate place  and  organized  into  divisions  along  the  same  lines  as 
those  for  a  fleet  in  active  service,  the  whole  being  under  com- 
mand of  a  flag  officer. 

To  each  division  in  reserve  there  is  attached  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  men  to  enable  one  ship  of  the  division  to  be  ordered  to  sea 
on  short  notice,  leaving  enough  men  to  care  for  the  other  ships 
of  the  division. 

The  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  reserve  fleet  uses  every  effort 
to  keep  the  ships  under  his  command  in  complete  readiness 
for  battle,  so  that,  as  far  as  material  is  concerned,  the  ship  can 
efficiently  take  her  place  in  the  battle  line  upon  four  days' 
notice.  The  vessels  and  the  divisions  of  the  reserve  fleets  are 
ordered  to  sea  from  time  to  time,  as  circumstances  permit,  for 
the  exercise  cruises,  target  practice,  and  such  other  purposes 
as  the  department  may  desire. 

The  sea  and  lake  coasts  are  divided  into  naval  districts.  For 
administrative  purposes  two  or  more  districts  may  be  combined 
under  a  common  head. 

Each  naval  district  is  in  charge  of  a  "  supervisor  of  the  naval 
district." 

The  supervisor  of  a  naval  district  is  responsible  for: 

(a)  The  organization  and  maintenance  of  his  district. 

(6)  The  naval  patrol  in  his  district,  which  consists  of  a  system 
of  obtaining  and  forwarding  information  to  and  from  the  coast 
and  of  communicating  with  our  naval  vessels. 

(c)  The  instruction  of  Naval  Militia  officers  in  the  organiza- 
tion and  plans  of  then-  respective  districts. 

(d)  Coordination  of  the  service  of  information  of  the  naval 


220  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

district  with  that  of  the  branch  hydro-graphic  offices  within  its 
limits. 

Radio  stations  constitute  the  principal  parts  of  the  Coast 
Signal  Service  of  the  Navy. 

The  general  control  of  communication  through  radio  stations, 
and  all  matters  concerning  their  military  features,  location, 
establishment  or  abandonment,  is  directly  under  the  Division 
of  Operations  of  the  Fleet. 


RANK,    COMMAND,   AND   DUTY 

Officers  of  the  United  States  Navy  are  known  as  officers  of 
the  line  and  officers  of  the  staff. 

The  officers  of  the  line  are  by  law  as  follows:  the  Admiral 
of  the  Navy  and  the  Admirals  of  the  Fleets,  Vice  Admiral,  Rear 
Admiral,  Captain,  Commander,  Lieutenant  Commander,  Lieu- 
tenant, Lieutenant  (junior  grade),  and  Ensign. 

The  officers  of  the  staff  are :  Medical  officers,  Dental  officers, 
Pay  officers,  Chaplains,  Professors  of  Mathematics,  Naval  Con- 
structors, Civil  Engineers. 

Midshipmen  are  by  law  officers  in  a  qualified  sense,  and  are 
classed  as  being  of  the  line. 

Vessels  of  the  Navy  are  classified  and  commanded  as  follows : 

(a)  First  rates,  men  of  war  of  8,000  tons  and  above,  55  in 
number,  commanded  by  Captains  or  Commanders. 

(6)  Second  rates,  men  of  war  of  4,000  to  8,000  tons  and  con- 
verted and  auxiliary  vessels  of  6,000  tons  and  above,  13  in 
number,  commanded  by  Commanders. 

(c)  Third  rates,  men  of  war  of  1,000  tons  to  4,000  tons,  con- 
verted and  auxiliary  vessels  1,000  to  6,000  tons,  colliers,  refriger- 
ating ships,  distilling,  repair  and  hospital  ships,  tank  steamers, 
and  special  vessels  of  4,000  tons  and  above;  74  in  number; 
commanded  by  Lieutenant  Commanders. 

(d)  Fourth  rates,  men  of  war  and  converted  and  auxiliary 
vessels  under  1,000  tons,  colliers,  refrigerating  ships,  distilling, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  221 

repair,  and  hospital  ships,  tank  steamers  and  special  vessels 
under  4,000  tons;  29  in  number;  commanded  by  Lieutenant 
Commanders  or  Lieutenants. 

(e)  Torpedo  boat  destroyers,  torpedo  boats,  submarines, 
torpedo  or  submarine  tenders,  tugs,  sailing  ships,  and  stationary 
receiving  ships,  are  commanded  by  Lieutenants  (junior  grade)  or 
Ensigns. 

Naval  officers  ordered  to  duty  under  the  Lighthouse  Board 
or  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  or  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and 
Labor,  the  Lighthouse  Board  or  the  Superintendent  of  the 
Coast  Survey,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  various  branches  of  service,  Staff  Corps,  rank  of  officers, 
and  grade  of  enlisted  men  are  distinguished  by  color  of  facings, 
style  of  uniform,  collar  ornaments,  cap  and  hat  devices,  braid  and 
chevrons  of  sleeve,  etc.  The  proper  uniform,  military  medals, 
badges,  etc.  for  various  occasions  are  set  forth  in  uniform  regula- 
tions. 

THE  NAVY  LEAGUE 

The  Navy  League  of  the  United  States,  incorporated  by 
patriotic  citizens  in  1904  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  and  spread- 
ing before  the  American  people  trustworthy  information  rela- 
tive to  our  naval  forces  and  naval  policy,  has  been  a  potent 
factor  in  arousing  public  interest  favorable  to  an  adequate 
navy. 

It  thus  summarizes  naval  service: 

The  navy  is  our  main  defense.  A  modern  navy  cannot  be 
improvised. 

The  navy  has  21,000  miles  of  coast  line  to  defend  and  more 
harbors  and  seaport  cities  and  fewer  strategic  barriers  than  any 
other  navy. 

The  navy  must  defend:  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  weight  of  a  powerful  navy  gives  force  to  diplomacy. 


222  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Naval  power  is  a  legitimate  factor  in  international  settle- 
ments, because  it  is  the  evidence  of  national  efficiency. 

The  navy  as  a  trade  school  has  been  called  "Our  Great  Na- 
tional University."  It  returns  to  civil  life  annually  as  many 
trained,  efficient,  and  patriotic  young  men  as  are  graduated  from 
the  five  leading  universities  of  the  country. 

The  navy  is  one  of  the  foundations  of  national  credit. 

Battleships  are  cheaper  than  battles. 

The  money  for  American  battleships  is  paid  to  American 
working-men,  American  builders,  and  American  craftsmen. 

The  navy  is  a  school  of  efficiency,  teaching  many  trades; 
teaching  also  patriotism,  discipline,  and  cleanliness  to  young 
men,  a  large  portion  of  whom  are  so  young  that  they  can  hardly 
be  considered  as  producing  units. 

The  United  States  Navy  suppressed  piracy  and  the  African 
slave  trade. 

It  opened  Korea  and  Japan  to  the  outside  world. 

It  has  largely  contributed  to : 

Arctic  and  Antarctic  exploration  and  relief; 

Protection  of  the  fur  seals; 

Pioneer  work  of  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey; 

The  establishment  of  light-house  service; 

Pioneer  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau; 

The  work  of  the  Naval  Observatory  and  Hydrographic  Office; 

Explorations  and  preliminary  surveys  for  various  Isthmian 
Canal  routes; 

Frequent  protection  of  missionaries  and  citizens  abroad; 

Frequent  prevention  of  insurrection  hi  the  West  Indies  and 
the  Southern  republics ; 

Friendly  offices  to  Cuba,  Panama,  San  Domingo,  and  Nica- 
ragua; 

Repeated  earthquake  and  famine  relief,  as,  for  instance,  at 
Messina,  Martinique,  and  in  Ireland; 

Wireless  communication  with  ships  at  sea;  warning  of  storms 
and  dangers; 


Kitchen  and  bakery,  Naval  Training  Station,  Newport,  R.  I. 


Gymnasium,  Naval  Training  Station,  Newport,  R.  I. 


Chief  master  at  arms  Boatswain's  mate  1st  Class 


Gunner's  mate  2nd  Class  Quartermaster  3rd  Class 

Rating  badges.     Blue.     U.  S.  Navy  enlisted  men 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE  NAVY 

THE  Navy  Department  is  presided  over 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  a  civil  rather 
than  a  naval  functionary.  He  is  responsible 
only  to  the  President,  as  Commander-in-Chief , 
for  his  acts. 

He  performs  such  duties  as  the  President  as- 
signs him  and  has  the  general  superintendence 
of  construction,  manning,  armament,  equipment,  and  employ- 
ment of  vessels  of  war. 

The  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs  such  duties  in 
the  Navy  Department  as  are  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of 
Navy,  or  required  by  law. 

The  Chief  Clerk  has  general  charge  of  the  records  and  corres- 
pondence of  the  Secretary's  office  and  performs  such  other  duties 
as  may  be  assigned  to  him  by  the  Secretary. 

In  the  absence  of  the  Secretary  and  the  Assistant  Secretary 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  performs  the  functions  of  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy. 

Upon  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  devolves  the  proper  disburse- 
ment and  expenditure  of  the  naval  appropriations  aggregating, 
in  1915,  about  $142,000,000,  and  in  1916-17,  about  $300,000,000. 
The  business  of  the  Navy  Department  is  distributed  among 
the  following  bureaus : 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Operations; 
The  General  Board  of  the  Navy; 

•IS 


224  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy; 

Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks; 

Bureau  of  Navigation; 

Bureau  of  Ordnance; 

Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair; 

Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering; 

Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts; 

Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

The  several  bureau  chiefs  maintain  distinct  offices  retaining 
charge  and  custody  of  the  records  pertaining  to  then*  respective 
bureaus.  They  have  the  rank  of  Rear  Admirals  and  are  se- 
lected by  the  President  for  periods  of  four  years,  except  that  the 
Judge  Advocate  General  has  the  rank  of  Captain. 

The  Solicitor  of  the  Navy,  a  civilian,  examines  and  reports 
upon  questions  of  law,  including  the  drafting  and  interpretation 
of  statutes  and  matters  submitted  to  the  accounting  officers 
not  relating  to  the  personnel;  preparation  of  advertisements, 
proposals,  and  contracts;  insurance;  patents;  the  sufficiency  of 
official,  contract,  and  other  bonds  and  guarantees;  proceedings 
in  civil  courts  by  or  against  the  Government  or  its  officers  in 
cases  relating  to  material  and  not  concerning  the  personnel  of 
such;  claims  by  or  against  the  Government;  questions  submitted 
to  the  Attorney  General,  except  such  as  are  under  the  cognizance 
of  the  Judge  Advocate  General;  bills  and  congressional  resolu- 
tions and  inquiries  not  relating  to  the  personnel  and  not  else- 
where assigned;  and  to  conduct  the  correspondence  respecting 
the  foregoing  duties. 

The  Solicitor  is  charged  with  the  searching  of  titles,  purchase, 
sale,  transfer,  and  other  questions  affecting  lands  and  buildings 
pertaining  to  the  Navy,  and  with  the  care  and  preservation  of 
all  muniments  of  title  to  land  acquired  for  naval  uses. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  1915 
is  a  very  comprehensive  and  interesting  resume  of  his  functions 
and  of  the  activities  of  the  Navy.  He  discussed  in  detail  the 
need  of  additional  ships  and  personnel  based  upon  the  recom- 


THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT  225 

mendations  of  the  Navy  General  Board  and  conferences  held 
with  naval  experts  and  patriotic  men  in  civil  life.  For  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  the  navy  a  plan  was  submitted  by  a  Secre- 
tary which  not  only  covered  the  necessities  of  the  immediate 
future,  but  those  covering  a  period  of  five  years.  This  plan 
contemplates  an  expenditure  of  $502,482,214,  and  that  by  1921 
our  Navy  will  be  composed  of  the  following  type  vessels,  accept- 
ing the  Navy  General  Board  estimate  of  survival  of  present 
vessels  and  calls  for : 

Battleships,  first  line 27 

Battle  cruisers 6 

Battleships,  second  line 25 

Armored  cruisers 10 

Scout  cruisers IS 

Cruisers,  first  class 5 

Cruisers,  second  class 3 

Cruisers,  third  class 10 

Destroyers 108 

Fleet  submarines 18 

Coast  submarines  ....:.' 157 

Monitors                      .  :. 6 

Gunboats 20 

Supply  ships 4 

Fuel  ships 15 

Transports 4 

Tenders  to  torpedo  vessels 8 

Special  types 8 

Ammunition  ships 2 

With  reference  to  the  illuminating  experiences  of  the  European 
War  and  the  extensive  maneuvers  undertaken  by  our  fleet  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  its  capacity  for  defending  this 
country  against  hostile  attacks,  the  Secretary  states:  "It  is 
practically  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  responsible  officers 
who  engaged  in  these  maneuvers  that  an  adequate  supply  of 
proper  scouts  is  essential.  Improvised  scouts,  such  as  destroy- 
ers, are  not  satisfactory.  It  is  necessary  that  the  scout  should 
be  a  vessel  designed  for  scouting  duties  and  sufficiently  large  and 
robust  to  do  its  work  practically  without  regard  to  weather 
conditions.  In  case  of  war  the  country  having  the  superior 
fleet  will  probably  control  the  sea,  but  experience  has  demon- 


226  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

strated  the  fact  that  fast  cruisers  may  keep  the  sea  for  an  in- 
definite period,  obtaining  supplies  and  coal  from  captured 
merchantmen  and  in  the  meantime  do  an  inestimable  damage 
to  the  commerce  and  lines  of  communication  of  the  country  with 
the  more  powerful  navy.  Without  fast  cruisers  of  equal  or 
greater  power,  both  in  speed  and  armament,  the  real  control 
of  the  sea  and  protection  to  commerce  and  lines  of  communica- 
tion cannot  be  assured.  In  actual  fleet  operations,  such  a  prob- 
lem as  must  confront  the  United  States  in  case  of  war  with  an 
overseas  enemy,  the  fast  cruiser  becomes  the  eyes  of  the  fleet 
*  *  *  to  insure  success  our  eyes  must  be  at  least  equal  if 
not  superior  to  the  eyes  of  the  enemy;  in  other  words,  our 
fast  cruisers  must  be  equal  to  if  not  superior  to  those  of  the 
enemy." 

The  inauguration  of  the  office  of  Naval  Operations,  1914,  has 
resulted  hi  a  comprehensive  and  efficient  system  and  cooperation 
of  all  bureaus  and  a  closer  and  more  sympathetic  action  between 
the  Navy  Department,  the  fleet,  and  the  shore  establishments. 

Our  fleets  have  been  actively  employed  during  the  past  year. 
The  Asiatic  fleet  is  kept  in  the  Orient  looking  after  American 
interests  in  the  Far  East,  and  the  Philippines.  In  July,  1915,  this 
fleet  rendered  effective  relief  to  sufferers  from  the  flooded 
districts  of  Canton,  China.  The  Pacific  fleet  has  performed 
important  duties  in  Mexican  waters  in  protecting  American  and 
foreign  interests  along  the  extended  Pacific  Coast  of  Mexico. 
In  August  a  division  of  destroyers  of  the  Pacific  flotilla  made  a 
cruise  of  reconnaisance  in  Alaskan  waters  among  islands  of  the 
Aleutian  group,  to  the  extreme  western  island  of  Kiska.  Move- 
ments of  this  character  are  such  as  would  be  required  of  destroy- 
ers in  time  of  war. 

The  Atlantic  fleet  has  been  unusually  busy  in  maintaining 
United  States  neutrality  and  in  routine  drills,  target  practice, 
and  maneuvers.  Two  United  States  warships  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean have  transported  thousands  of  refugees  of  various  nation- 
alities from  hostile  ports  to  places  of  safety.  Conditions  in 


THE  NAVY  DEPARTMENT  227 

Mexico  have  required  the  constant  presence  of  a  number  of 
cruisers  at  several  important  Mexican  ports. 

The  assassination  of  the  Haitian  President  Guillaume  Sam,  July 
28,  1915,  necessitated  the  despatch  of  naval  vessels  to  protect 
American  and  foreign  lives  and  property  and  to  restore  order, 
including  a  force  of  2,000  marines  still  on  duty  there. 

During  the  winter  the  Atlantic  fleet  conducts  extensive  tar- 
get practice,  tactical  exercises  of  the  ships,  and  small  arms 
practice  at  the  United  States  Naval  base,  Guantanamo,  Cuba. 
The  Atlantic  fleet  of  64  ships  was  reviewed  by  President  Wilson 
at  New  York  City,  May  17,  1915.  An  imposing  review  of  this 
fleet  took  place  at  Boston  in  August,  incident  to  the  Annual 
Conference  of  the  Governors  of  States. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy  Daniels  is  enjoying  the  satisfaction  of 
excellent  results  from  several  radical  changes  introduced  early  in 
his  administration  affecting  the  contentment,  health,  education, 
advancement,  and  promotion,  reenlistment  and  recruitment  of 
enlisted  men. 

In  his  annual  report  for  1915  he  comments  as  follows : 

"In  my  last  annual  report  mention  was  made  of  the  depart- 
ment to  raise  the  standard  of  the  enlisted  men  by  opening  the 
door  of  opportunity  to  the  worthy  and  by  weeding  out  those 
who  bring  discredit  on  their  uniform.  This  policy  has  been 
continued,  with  the  result  that  it  has  become  more  generally 
known  that  the  position  of  an  enlisted  man  is  an  honorable  one 
and  that  none  but  men  of  good  character  are  accepted,  and  that 
a  young  man  who  enlists  in  the  Navy  has  brighter  prospects  for 
education  and  advancement  than  the  great  majority  of  his 
former  associates.  He  has  before  him  the  opportunity  of  being 
appointed  as  midshipman  at  the  Naval  Academy,  where  he  will 
be  educated  as  an  officer  and  commissioned  upon  graduation 
as  ensign  and  take  his  place  in  the  line  of  promotion  to  the 
highest  rank  in  the  Navy.  If  he  should  pass  the  age  limit  for 
entrance  to  the  Naval  Academy  he  still  has  an  opportunity  of 
reaching  the  highest  commissioned  rank  through  the  warrant 


228  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

grades,  or  he  may  enter  the  pay  corps  directly  as  a  commissioned 
officer  or  through  the  grades  of  pay  clerk  and  chief  pay  clerk. 
Appointment  to  these  grades  are  made  only  from  among  the 
chief  petty  officers.  This  opens  200  positions  to  promotion 
for  enlisted  men.  Aside  from  the  opportunities  of  promo- 
tion to  warrant  and  commissioned  rank,  which  have  been  greatly 
increased  during  the  past  two  years,  the  Navy  offers  to  the 
young  men  of  the  country  a  career  as  an  enlisted  man  which 
no  industrial  institution  offers. 

"Since  1901  it  has  been  possible  for  enlisted  men  who  have 
attained  the  warrant  grades  to  obtain  commissions  as  ensigns 
in  the  line  of  the  Navy,  but  only  forty-five  such  appointments 
have  been  made. 

"It  has  been  noted  during  the  last  year  that  parental  objection 
to  enlistment  has  largely  disappeared,  and  it  is  now  a  common 
occurrence  for  parents  to  take  the  initiative  in  having  their 
sons  enlist.  The  greater  portion  of  appeals  from  parents  are  not 
to  get  their  sons  out  of  the  Navy,  but  to  get  them  in." 


"The  lesson  of  the  European  war  warns  us  that  it  is  better  to  spend  money  in 
time  of  peace  for  preparation  than  to  run  the  risk,  however  remote,  of  sorely 
wanting  ships  and  munitions  if  suddenly  needed." — Josephus  Daniels,  Secretary 
of  the  Navy. 


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CHAPTER  XXVI 
THE  CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  OPERATIONS 

THE  Chief  of  Naval  Operations,  Rear  Admiral  William  S. 
Benson,  U.  S.  N.,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  is  charged  with  the  operations  of  the  Fleet  and  with  the 
preparation  and  readiness  of  plans  for  its  use  in  war. 

The  functions  of  this  office  include  the  direction  of  the  Naval 
War  College,  the  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence,  the  Office  of 
Gunnery  Exercises  and  Engineering  Performances,  the  operation 
of  the  Radio  Service  and  of  other  systems  of  communication;  the 
operation  of  the  Aeronautic  Service;  of  Mines  and  Mining; 
Naval  Defense  Districts;  Naval  Militia;  and  the  Coast  Guard 
when  operating  with  the  Navy. 

The  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  directs  all  strategic  and  tactical 
matters,  organizations,  maneuvers,  target  practice,  drills  and 
exercises,  revision  and  enforcement  of  all  tactics,  drill  books, 
signal  codes,  and  cipher  codes.  He  advises  the  Secretary  in 
regard  to  the  military  features  of  all  new  ships  and  proposed 
extensive  alterations  of  a  ship  which  will  affect  her  military 
value,  all  matters  pertaining  to  dry  docks  and  fuel  reservations 
or  depots.  He  also  considers  questions  concerning  the  location 
of  radio  stations,  reserves  of  ordnance  and  ammunition,  fuel, 
stores,  and  other  supplies  of  every  nature  affecting  the  demands 
of  the  Fleet.  He  witnesses  operations  of  the  Fleet  as  an  observer 
from  time  to  time. 

In  the  absence  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  the  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  performs 
their  functions. 


230  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Naval  War  College  is  situated  at  Newport,  R.  I.  It  cor- 
responds to  the  Army  War  College  at  Washington. 

The  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence  is  charged  with  the  collection 
and  dissemination  of  such  technical  information  at  home  and 
abroad  as  will  be  useful  to  the  various  bureaus  of  the  Navy 
Department  in  the  formulation  of  plans  for  war  and  in  the  de- 
velopment of  personnel  and  material. 

The  Office  of  Gunnery  Exercises  and  Engineering  Perform- 
ances formulates  rules  for  all  forms  of  gunnery  and  steaming 
performances;  computing,  compiling,  and  publishing  in  confiden- 
tial form  the  results  and  records  of  these  performances;  the 
award  of  prizes,  trophies,  and  commendatory  letters  in  connec- 
tion therewith,  the  ultimate  purpose  of  these  competitions  being 
to  promote  battle  efficiency  of  the  Fleet. 

Suitable  trophies  are  provided  by  Congress.  There  has  been 
a  marked  increase  of  efficiency  throughout  the  entire  Fleet  since 
the  introduction  of  these  competitions.  There  has  been  a  con- 
siderable saving  of  coal  and  oil.  The  smallest  detail  in  machin- 
ery of  the  ship  is  given  not  only  the  closest  attention,  but  the 
most  painstaking  and  studious  investigation.  A  warship  which 
had  developed  this  new  standard  of  efficiency  on  meeting  a 
sister  ship  not  yet  standardized  has  no  trouble  in  excelling  her  in 
speed  and  in  other  respects.  Some  ships  have  been  brought 
to  a  standard  of  excellence  surpassing  their  trial  records  and 
specifications.  Similar  rivalry  in  gunnery  exercises  has  been 
equally  gratifying. 

The  Superintendent  of  the  Radio  Service  is  charged  with  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  operation  of  radio  apparatus  ashore  and 
afloat  and  naval  telegraph  and  cable  work  in  connection  there- 
with. He  has  supervision  of  the  communications  of  the  Navy  and 
control  of  commercial  service  handled  by  naval  radio  stations. 
He  cooperates  with  the  officials  designated  by  the  Secretary 
of  Commerce  in  reference  to  location  of  proposed  commercial 
stations,  the  licensing  of  operators,  the  control  of  the  operation 
of  commercial  stations  under  the  law,  and  the  assignment  of 


THE  CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  OPERATIONS          281 

wave  lengths  for  use  by  commercial  stations  which  will  comply 
with  the  law  and  prevent  interference  with  the  organization 
and  operation  of  the  Naval  Radio  Service.  This  service  main- 
tains and  operates  a  chain  of  high  and  medium  power  radio 
stations  not  excelled  in  efficiency  by  any  stations  in  the  world. 
Through  the  station  at  Arlington,  Va.,  orders  and  instructions 
are  promptly  transmitted  to  the  fleets  direct  or  by  relay  where- 
ever  they  may  be  in  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic. 

The  radio  service  has  been  prominently  identified  with  long- 
distance radio  telephone  communication,  which  was  accomplished 
for  the  first  time  on  September  29, 1915,  when  experiments  exten- 
ding over  several  months  culminated  in  successful  transmission 
for  the  human  voice  by  radio  from  the  naval  radio  station  at  Ar- 
lington, across  the  continent  to  the  station  at  Mare  Island,  Cal., 
2,500  miles  away.  The  experiments  were  made  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Co.,  and  the  Western  Electric  Co.,  to  whom  the  facilities  of  the 
Arlington  and  other  stations  were  tendered  by  the  Navy  De- 
partment. In  the  first  experiments  the  voice  was  successfully 
transmitted  by  radio  to  Mare  Island  from  Arlington,  the  return 
answers  and  communications  being  made  over  transcontinental 
land  telephone  lines.  This  was  accomplished  in  the  presence 
of  officials  and  engineers  of  the  Western  Electric  Co.,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army,  representatives  of 
the  technical  and  operating  departments  of  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment, and  other  interested  parties.  After  this  successful  dem- 
onstration conversation  originating  in  New  York  was  trans- 
mitted over  the  land  line  to  Arlington,  there  automatically  con- 
nected to  the  radio  transmitter,  which  carried  the  voice  to 
Mare  Island,  where  it  was  clearly  and  distinctly  received,  and 
answers  and  other  conversation  were  from  there  transmitted 
over  the  transcontinental  line  to  the  originating  office  in  New 
York.  In  the  presence  of  a  distinguished  company  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  on  November  5th,  sat  at  his  desk  in  the  Navy 
Department  and  sent  the  first  order  ever  issued  by  the  Navy 


232  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

by  wireless  telephony.  This  order  was  sent  to  Rear  Admiral 
Usher,  commandant  of  the  New  York  Navy  Yard,  and  was  as 
follows:  "Report  as  soon  as  practicable  after  the  arrival  of  the 
New  York  how  soon  the  repairs  recommended  can  be  com- 
pleted." As  there  was  no  sending  apparatus  at  the  New  York 
end  of  the  line,  the  answer  came  back  over  the  long-distance 
wires.  Prolonged  conversations  were  carried  on  with  New 
York  without  the  slightest  difficulty. 

Radio  telephone  communication  between  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment and  a  warship  at  sea  was  established  May  8, 1916,  for  the 
first  time  as  part  of  a  demonstration  of  the  possibilities  of  radio 
wireless  telephony.  Simultaneously  the  department  was  in 
touch  with  all  of  its  land  stations  in  continental  United  States 
and  gave  orders  verbally  to  the  various  commandants.  The 
Secretary  and  ranking  officer  of  the  Navy  talked  to  the  battle- 
ship New  Hampshire,  far  off  the  Virginia  capes,  and  heard  dis- 
tinctly the  replies  of  her  commander.  Representatives  of  the 
telephone  companies,  whose  resources  had  been  made  available 
for  the  occasion,  told  the  Secretary  that  communication  by 
wireless  telephone  between  a  land  station  and  a  ship  at  sea  never 
before  had  been  accomplished  anywhere,  and  that  the  United 
States  was  the  only  nation  that  knew  how  to  perfect  such  a  feat. 

Much  of  the  development  in  radio  telegraphy  is  due  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  original  work  of  the  Navy  Department, 
and  to  the  collaboration  of  naval  experts  with  the  eminent  radio 
engineers  of  the  country.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  the  President  delegated  the  censorship  of  radio  communica- 
tion between  Europe  and  this  country  upon  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. The  ships  of  all  belligerent  countries  entering  the  waters 
of  the  United  States  were  prohibited  from  using  radio  apparatus 
while  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  and  the  radio 
apparatus  of  such  ships  was  sealed  and  in  some  cases  the  anten- 
nae lowered  and  disconnected. 

The  Director  of  Naval  Aeronautics  supervises  the  operation 
of  air  craft  and  air  craft  stations  in  connection  with  the  Fleet 


Chevrons  of  enlisted  men,  IT.  S.  Navy 


1.  Commissary  Steward 

2.  Master  at  Arms 

3.  Bandmasters,  Musicians 

4.  Hospital  Stewards,  hospital 

apprentices  (red  cloth) 

5.  Machinists'     Mates,     boiler 

makers,         water-tenders, 
coppersmiths,  oilers 

6.  Electricians 

7.  Yeomen,  first,   second,   and 

third  classes 

8.  Chief  Yeomen 

9.  Gunners'  Mates 

10.  Turret  Captains 

1 1 .  Carpenters'  Mates,  plumber, 

and  fitters,  painters,  ship- 
wright 

12.  Printers 


13.  Sailmakers'  Mates 

14.  Blacksmiths,  Ship-fitters 

15.  Quartermasters 

16.  Gun-captain 

17.  Boatswain's    Mates,     Cox- 

swains 

18.  Gun-pointer,  first  class 

19.  Gun-pointer,  second  class 

20.  Ex-apprentice 

21.  Seaman-gunner 

22.  Bugler 

23.  Torpedoman 

24.  Radio-operator 

25.  Ships'  cooks  and  bakers 

26.  Navy  "E"   (given  to  gun, 

turret,  and  torpedo  crews 
for  "  excellence  "  inr  gun- 
nery) 


Reconnaissance  type,  Curtis  Biplane,  160  H.  P. 


Martin  tractor,  125  H.  P.,  dual  control  for  training  student  aviators 


THE  CHIEF  OF  NAVAL  OPERATIONS          233 

and  for  strictly  naval  purposes.  He  has  supervision  of  the 
training  of  officers  and  men  in  the  Aeronautic  Service  and 
cooperates  with  the  Division  of  Naval  Militia  Affairs  in  regard  to 
the  training  of  Aeronautic  Service  for  the  Naval  Militia. 

The  naval  aeronautical  squadron  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion to  Vera  Cruz  in  1914  and  made  many  successful  recon- 
naisance  flights  inland  for  short  distances. 

An  altitude  record  for  hydroaeroplanes  of  10,000  feet  was 
made  by  Lieutenant  Bellinger  in  1915.  A  type  of  naval  hydro- 
aeroplane to  meet  the  special  requirements  of  naval  service  is 
being  developed  by  experimentation  with  the  wind  tunnel  and 
models  and  by  actual  flying. 

The  first  specific  appropriation  for  naval  aeronautics  was 
$1,000,000  for  1915.  The  present  session  of  Congress  has 
added  $2,000,000  for  the  fiscal  year  1916-17.  The  abandoned 
navy  yard  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  representing  an  expenditure 
of  nearly  eight  million  dollars,  is  being  converted  into  an  ideal 
aeronautical  station. 

The  North  Carolina  is  also  assigned  to  aviation  service. 

Experiments  of  all  kinds  are  continually  being  carried  out  at 
the  aeronautic  station.  Some  of  these  experiments  can  be 
combined  with  the  flying  school  work,  such  as  efficiency  of 
different  lubricating  oils  and  of  different  grades  of  gasoline; 
the  preliminary  tests  of  different  types  of  floats  for  aeroplanes; 
tests  of  instruments;  tests  of  special  life  preservers  for  aviators; 
experiments  with  clothing,  and  various  other  tests.  In  addition 
to  the  qualified  aviators  who  have  been  appointed,  Navy  air 
pilots  have  tested  out  new  types  of  floats  for  aeroplanes  in 
rough  weather  water  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  have  made  long 
flights  to  test  the  reliability  of  motors  and  the  endurance  of 
aviators;  tested  aeroplanes  for  speed  and  climb;  are  testing 
bombs  and  bomb-dropping  appliances;  trying  out  safety  straps; 
trying  out  new  types  of  aeroplanes  in  all  kinds  of  weather  to 
demonstrate  their  stability  and  reliability;  conducting  running 
motor  and  propeller  tests;  operating  special  hoisting  apparatus 


234  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

required  for  aeroplanes  on  the  North  Carolina,  and  a  large 
number  of  minor  experiments. 

The  1915  appropriations  have  been  utilized  in  purchasing 
1  dirigible,  20  aeroplanes,  73  aeronautic  motors,  1  free  balloon, 
1  floating  dirigible  shed,  1  hydrogen  plant  for  dirigibles,  1  set  of 
aeroplane  hangars,  one  aeroplane  wrecking  derrick,  costing 
$771,800.  The  balance  was  applied  to  repair  and  contin- 
gencies. 

A  new  class  of  enlisted  men  is  formed  at  the  Aviation  School 
every  three  months.  Some  of  the  men  are  taught  and  exer- 
cised in  the  principles  of  flight  and  all  are  trained  in  the  mechan- 
ics of  aviation.  It  is  the  intention,  if  authorized  by  Congress,  to 
take  civilian  flyers  into  the  Naval  Section. 


"It  will  hardly  be  denied  by  any  normal  citizen  of  our  country  that  we  want 
to  use  the  most  efficient  methods  to  perpetuate  our  Government  and  our  institu- 
tions. With  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  nations,  if  any  example  can  be  given 
of  a  nation  which  has  maintained  itself  without  force  of  arms  sufficient  to  defend 
it  from  unjust  demands,  then  some  thought  might  be  given  the  argument  of 
those  misguided  and  misinformed  persons  who  protest  against  our  nation  placing 
itself  in  a  position  to  defend  our  country  and  enforce  the  just  demands  we  may  be 
called  to  make  of  other  nations. 

"So  long  as  these  people  base  their  arguments  on  a  higher  civilization  we  are 
supposed  to  have  attained,  as  a  guarantee  of  our  peace  and  security,  we  can 
class  them  as  impracticable  visionary  dreamers,  who  fail  to  realize  that  to  pro- 
tect its  citizens  is  the  first  duty  of  a  government,  and  without  the  ability  to  do 
this  it  has  no  right  to  be  called  a  government." — Representative  Thomas  S. 
Crago,  of  Pennsylvania. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  THE  NAVY 

THE  Admiral  of  the  Navy,  George  Dewey,  is  President  of 
the  General  Board  of  the  Navy  indefinitely  although  past  the 
age  for  active  service,  sixty-two  years,  by  reason  of  his  having 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  the  victory  of  Manila  Bay, 
May  1, 1898.  An  officer  so  honored  is  retired  from  active  service 
only  upon  his  own  request  irrespective  of  age. 

The  General  Board  is  composed  of  the  Admiral  of  the  Navy, 
the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations,  the  Major-General  Commandant 
United  States  Marine  Corps,  the  Director  of  Naval  Intelligence, 
the  President  of  the  Naval  War  College,  and  such  additional 
officers  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  may  designate. 

An  officer  above  the  grade  of  lieutenant,  as  secretary,  records 
its  proceedings  and  has  charge  and  custody  of  its  files  and  cor- 
respondence. 

The  General  Board  devises  measures  and  plans  for  the  effec- 
tive preparation  and  maintenance  of  the  Fleet  for  war  and  advises 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as  to  the  disposition  and  distribution 
of  the  Fleet  and  of  the  reinforcements  of  ships,  officers,  and  men 
of  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 

It  prepares  and  submits  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  plans 
of  campaign,  including  cooperation  with  the  Army  and  the 
employment  of  all  the  elements  of  naval  defense,  such  as  the 
Naval  Militia,  Coast  Survey,  Lighthouse  Service,  Coast  Guard, 
and  merchant  vessels. 

It  considers  the  number  and  types  of  ships  proper  to  consti- 
tute the  Fleet,  the  number  and  rank  of  officers,  and  the  number 
and  ratings  of  enlisted  men  required  to  man  them,  and  advises 

235 


236  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  respecting  the  estimates  therefor  to 
be  submitted  annually  to  Congress. 

It  advises  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  concerning  the  location, 
capacity,  and  protection  of  fuel  depots  and  supplies  of  fuel,  and 
of  navy  yards  and  naval  stations;  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  reserves  of  ordnance  and  ammunition  and  depots  of 
supplies;  the  delivery  of  provisions  and  stores  of  every  kind  re- 
quired by  the  fleet. 

It  coordinates  the  work  of  the  Naval  War  College  and  the 
Office  of  Naval  Intelligence;  considers  and  reports  upon  naval 
operations,  maneuvers,  tactics,  organization,  training,  and 
such  other  subjects  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  may  lay  before 
it. 

When  designs  are  to  be  prepared  for  a  new  ship  the  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations,  in  conjunction  with  the  General  Board,  sub- 
mits to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  a  recommendation  as  to  the 
military  characteristics  to  be  embodied  therein.  Such  military 
characteristics  include  a  general  statement  as  to  type  of  ship, 
speed,  radius  of  action,  and  armor  and  armament,  having  regard 
for  the  various  arrangements  that  might  be  developed  in  order 
to  obtain  the  benefit  arising  from  the  consideration  of  several 
possible  solutions.  These  military  characteristics  are  prepared 
by  the  General  Board  sufficiently  early  to  permit  the  preliminary 
design  to  be  prepared  and  the  approximate  cost  determined 
before  the  estimates  for  the  yearly  building  program  are  sub- 
mitted. 

The  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  in  consultation  with 
the  other  interested  bureaus,  then  prepares  and  submits  outline 
preliminary  plans,  approximate  data,  or  both,  showing  the  ship 
in  accordance  with  the  above  recommendations.  Such  plans, 
when  approved  by  the  Secretary,  are  the  basis  of  actual  contract 
plans  and  specifications,  subject  to  such  modifications  in  non- 
military  features  as  may  appear  desirable  and  practicable  in 
working  out  the  details. 

The  final  preparation  of  departmental  estimates  for  submission 


THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  THE  NAVY    237 

to  Congress  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy. 

In  the  absence  of  a  Council  of  National  Defense  to  formulate 
a  definite  National  Defense  policy,  it  has  devolved  upon  the 
General  Board  of  the  Navy  to  formulate  a  tentative  Navy  De- 
partment policy,  and  to  develop  this  policy  as  far  as  practicable 
by  intermittent  appropriations. 

In  1903  the  General  Board  formulated  a  policy  having  in 
view  the  estimate  and  forecast  of  the  future  as  to  what  would 
be  the  development  of  foreign  countries  with  which  conflict 
might  be  probable  and  what  our  own  development  should  be  to 
insure  peace.  A  continuous  naval  policy  of  two  battleships 
per  year  was  submitted  contemplating  a  fleet  of  forty-eight 
battleships  by  1919,  including  the  necessary  lesser  units  and 
auxiliary  ships.  However,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  asked 
for  only  one  battleship  that  year.  By  1913  this  program  had 
become  so  hopeless  that  the  Navy  General  Board  was  con- 
strained to  report:  "There  is  not  now  and  there  has  never  been 
in  any  true  sense  a  governmental  or  departmental  naval  policy. 
The  Fleet,  as  it  exists,  is  the  growth  of  an  inadequately  expressed 
public  opinion;  and  the  growth  has  followed  the  law  of  expedi- 
ency to  meet  temporary  emergencies,  and  has  had  little  or  no 
relation  to  the  true  meaning  of  naval  power,  or  to  the  Nation's 
need  therefor,  for  the  preservation  of  peace  and  for  the  support 
and  advancement  of  our  national  policies." 

The  European  War  has  aroused  business  and  professional  men 
and  public  officials  to  a  profound  consideration  of  our  own  na- 
tional defense,  with  the  result  that  the  63rd  Congress  gave  very 
deep  consideration  to  a  proper  national  defense  policy,  yet 
declining  to  create  a  Council  of  National  Defense  as  proposed 
to  consist  of  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  Navy,  Army,  Navy, 
and  civilian  experts. 

The  64th  Congress  has  undertaken  this  consideration  anew, 
having  before  it  the  five-year  program  of  naval  construction 
and  increase  submitted  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  that 


238  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  the  General  Board,  the  two  programs  differing  but  slightly, 
principally  in  the  number  of  smaller  ships  recommended. 

From  the  annual  report  of  the  Navy  General  Board,  1915, 
the  following  conclusions  of  interest  to  the  general  public  are 
quoted: 

"  Battleships  are  still  the  main  reliance  of  navies.  Defense 
from  invasion  is  not  the  only  function  of  the  Navy.  The 
United  States  Navy  is  not  strong  enough  in  peace  or  war.  Un- 
due weight  has  been  attached  to  submarines. 

"  The  high  score  of  submarines  was  attained  by  surprises,  not 
by  inherent  combatant  superiority.  The  submarine  is  not  fitted 
to  dominate  naval  warfare. 

"  The  General  Board  is  convinced  of  the  great  advantages,  both 
military  and  economic,  which  will  follow  upon  the  acceptance  of 
the  general  principle  of  a  building  program  extending  over  a 
period  of  years. 

"The  military  end  to  be  reached  at  the  close  of  such  a  period 
is  thus  made  clearly  evident  by  the  Navy  Department  to  Con- 
gress and  to  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  a  degree  of  finan- 
cial security  is  offered  the  industries  of  the  country  by  the 
foreknowledge  which  they  thus  obtain  as  to  probable  naval  ex- 
penditures. This  will  encourage  them  to  invest  money  in  en- 
larging their  plants  for  naval  shipbuilding  and  its  allied  indus- 
tries. At  the  same  time,  the  strong  probability  of  continued 
work  throughout  the  period  of  the  program  will  tend  to  reduce 
contract  price. 

"  The  General  Board  believes  that  the  course  of  the  present 
war  in  Europe  affords  convincing  reasons  for  modifying  the 
opinion  which  it  has  expressed  for  the  past  eleven  years  as  to  the 
proper  size  of  the  Navy.  A  navy  in  firm  control  of  the  seas 
from  the  outbreak  of  war  is  the  prime  essential  to  the  defense  of  a 
country  situated  as  is  the  United  States  bordering  upon  two 
great  oceans.  A  navy  strong  enough  only  to  defend  our  coast 
from  actual  invasion  will  not  suffice.  It  must  protect  our  sea- 
borne commerce  and  drive  that  of  the  enemy  from  the  sea. 


U.  S.  Army  dual  control  Curtis  flying  boat,  passenger  and  pilot 


U.  S.  Array  dual  control  Martin  Model  S.  hydro-aeroplane 


Prison  ship  Philadelphia  and  detentioners  at  artillery  and  boat 

drills 


Target  butts,  built  by  naval  prisoners 


THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  THE  NAVY    239 

I 

The  best  way  to  accomplish  all  these  objects  is  to  find  and  defeat 
the  hostile  fleet  or  any  of  its  detachments  at  a  distance  from  our 
coasts  sufficiently  great  to  prevent  interruption  of  our  normal 
course  of  national  life.  Our  present  Navy  is  not  sufficient  to  give 
due  weight  to  the  diplomatic  remonstrances  of  the  United  States 
in  peace  nor  to  enforce  its  policies  in  war. 

"  The  General  Board  has  noted  the  progress  of  the  war  abroad 
in  order  to  profit  by  its  lessons  in  making  recommendations  as 
to  the  type  and  relative  numbers  of  ships  to  be  laid  down.  " 

"  In  the  second  series  falls  the  work  of  the  submarines.  The 
deeds  of  the  submarines  have  been  so  spectacular  that  in  default 
of  engagements  between  the  main  fleets  undue  weight  has  been 
attached  to  them.  It  is  desirable  to  arrive  at  a  true  estimate 
of  their  importance,  which,  although  undeniable,  is  less  than  the 
public  believes.  The  North  Sea,  across  which  the  combatants 
face  each  other,  is  not  of  great  extent,  and  its  comparatively 
limited  area  offers  a  field  not  too  large  for  the  submarine  to 
maneuver  in  any  part  of  it. 

"  Consequently,  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  in  the  North  Sea 
and  elsewhere  in  Great  Britain,  and  later  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  conditions  were  not  entirely  dissimilar,  the  German  sub- 
marines obtained  some  striking  successes  against  the  allies  before 
the  latter,  who  held  the  general  control  of  the  sea,  discovered  the 
proper  method  of  guarding  against  attack  by  then*  invisible 
enemy.  Both  in  the  North  Sea  and  in  the  Mediterranean  the 
submarine  upon  its  first  appearance  scored  heavily. 

"  After  six  months  of  war  the  submarine  form  of  attack  drew 
renewed  attention  by  its  direction  against  hostile  commerce. 
American  public  attention  was  redoubled  toward  this  side  of  the 
war,  owing  to  the  humanitarian  interests  involved,  and  to  the 
diplomatic  questions  which  were  raised  thereby.  It  appears 
from  British  returns  that  the  first  eight  months  of  this  subma- 
rine warfare  against  British  commerce  resulted  in  the  loss  of 
183  merchant  vessels  and  175  trawlers.  The  total  British 
merchant  tonnage  lost  was  not  greatly  in  excess  of  one-half  a 


240  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

million;  the  total  loss  under  all  flags  was  about  650,000  tons. 
In  the  same  time  the  total  arrivals  and  departures  in  British 
ports  averaged  from  1,350  to  1,400  per  week,  or  nearly  50,000 
in  all. 

"As  to  types  of  ships,  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  so  far  from 
the  history  of  the  current  war  is  that  the  battleship  is  still  the 
principal  reliance  of  navies,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past. 

"  The  United  States  Navy  has  hitherto  been  somewhat  ill  bal- 
anced as  to  the  different  types  of  ships  represented  in  it,  as 
battleships  need  auxiliaries  of  every  sort,  both  combatant  and 
administrative,  for  their  support  in  battle  and  in  being.  These 
auxiliaries  have  not  been  authorized  in  proper  proportion. 

"  With  its  two  extensive  coast  lines  the  United  States  offers 
great  opportunities  to  an  enemy  to  descend  by  surprise  upon  its 
shores.  To  meet  such  attack  the  tendency  of  the  country  is 
to  place  too  much  reliance  upon  localized  defences,  such  as  forti- 
fications, mines,  and  submarines.  These  are  essential,  but  these 
alone  cannot  accomplish  the  desired  purpose.  The  aim  should 
be  to  meet  the  enemy  at  a  distance  and  defeat  him  before  he 
reaches  the  neighborhood  of  the  coasts.  For  this  purpose  the 
country  must  rely  upon  the  sea-going  fleet.  To  forestall  the 
attack  of  the  enemy  our  main  fighting  force  must  be  concen- 
trated at  a  strategic  centre,  ready  to  move  and  defeat  the 
hostile  main  body  before  it  has  entered  an  area  where  its  pres- 
ence is  seriously  dangerous  to  this  country's  interests.  When 
concentrated  the  main  fleet  can  expect  to  move  in  time  to  fore- 
stall the  enemy's  intentions  only  if  it  has  an  adequate  informa- 
tion service  to  provide  early  and  continuous  intelligence  of  the 
enemy's  movements.  An  efficient  scouting  force  composed  of 
battle  cruisers  and  scouts  must  be  thrown  far  beyond  the  main 
body  to  assure  this  indispensable  service  of  information,  which 
cannot  otherwise  be  secured.  In  default  of  information  the 
main  fleet  can  only  act  blindly. 

"  In  the  general  development  of  our  naval  strength,  the  time 
has  now  come  to  provide  for  battle  cruisers  and  scouts.  The 


THE  GENERAL  BOARD  OF  THE  NAVY   241 

main  duty  of  both  types  is  to  get  information.  For  this  purpose 
numbers  are  necessary,  and  to  provide  these  numbers  without 
undue  cost  we  have  recourse  to  the  scout  type,  wherein  the  size 
is  as  small  as  will  afford  adequate  speed  and  radius  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  work.  A  scout  in  the  pursuance  of  her 
duties  should  rather  avoid  than  seek  battle.  Yet  she  must 
seek  and  maintain  contact  with  the  enemy,  and  therefore,  can- 
not dispense  with  a  small  armament  for  her  protection  when 
unavoidably  forced  into  an  engagement  by  ships  which  she  can- 
not evade. 

"  The  battle  cruiser,  also  chiefly  meant  to  secure  information, 
nevertheless  has  a  somewhat  different  role  from  that  of  the 
scout.  In  addition  to  high  speed  and  endurance  the  battle 
cruiser  has  high  offensive  powers,  so  that  if  necessary  she  may 
fight  for  information  and  break  through  the  hostile  screen. 
Another  important  duty  of  the  battle  cruiser  is  to  support  the 
protective  screen  of  lighter  craft  about  her  own  fleet,  which  is 
formed  to  detect  the  approach  of  the  enemy  and  guard  the 
main  body  from  surprise. 

"  The  battle  cruiser  can  do  all  that  the  scout  can  do  and  more, 
but  her  greater  power  entails  greater  cost.  If  the  financial  ques- 
tion were  not  involved,  all  ships  built  to  seek  information  would 
be  of  the  battle  cruiser  type. 

"  By  her  size,  speed,  and  armament,  the  battle  cruiser  is  well 
able  to  perform  other  combatant  services  than  her  primary  one 
of  offering  security  and  information  to  the  main  body  of  battle- 
ships. She  may  be  used  to  protect  national  sea  routes,  both 
military  and  commercial,  and  attack  those  of  the  enemy.  As 
high  speed  is  particularly  important  in  torpedo  warfare,  she 
may  aid  the  battleships  in  a  general  action  by  taking  up  a 
favorable  torpedo  position  where  her  own  heavy  guns  will  also 
be  effective. 

"  Precedent  to  a  general  action  we  may  normally  expect  the 
seas  to  be  swept  by  the  lighter  and  faster  craft  of  both  belliger- 
ents seeking  to  damage  hostile  trade,  to  discover  the  intentions 


242  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  the  enemy,  and  to  draw  him  into  eccentric  and  unwise  move- 
ments. Such  has  been  the  principal  employment  of  battle 
cruisers  in  the  present  war.  They  have  been  in  contact  with 
the  enemy,  and  their  performances  have  attracted  much  public 
attention;  but  as  yet  the  main  forces  of  battleships  have  not 
been  engaged  and  the  control  of  the  sea  remains  in  the  hands  of 
the  powers  having  the  superior  battle  fleet.  As  in  the  case  of 
submarines,  so  in  the  case  of  battle  cruisers,  the  particular  course 
of  the  present  war  does  not  justify  the  prevalent  exaggerated 
idea  of  their  importance." 


"The  American  coast  facing  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  not  well  fortified;  therefore 
Americans  have  become  very  nervous  about  the  new  rising  nation,  which  is 
accredited  as  being  a  military  race.  Americans  think  that  Japan  will  usurp 
all  the  markets  of  China  and  drive  the  foreigners  out  of  Asia.  Public  opinion 
is  in  accord  that  the  rival  of  America  is  Japan,  and  that  a  powerful  navy  must 
be  constructed  against  the  Rising  Sun.  They  are  endeavoring  to  complete  the 
Panama  Canal.  .  .  ; 

"Nothing  can  be  more  dreaded  than  crazy  people,  and  the  Japanese  are  a 
crazy  nation.  In  fighting  she  will  go  on  like  mad,  as  was  well  illustrated  in 
the  late  war.  The  Japanese  are  always  ready  to  throw  away  their  lives  for 
the  glory  of  the  State;  they  regard  their  lives  as  light  as  the  weather.  On  the 
other  hand  Americans  and  Europeans  attach  too  much  importance  to  money; 
those  who  love  money  love  their  lives.  Suppose  the  Americans  and  Japanese 
— whose  ideas  of  death  are  fundamentally  different — should  come  to  fighting. 
The  final  result  will  be  easily  foretold." — Interview  with  Count  Okuma  in  the 
New  York  Times. 


CHAPTER  XXVIH 
THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL  OF  THE  NAVY 

THE  office  of  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy,  since 
November  5,  1913,  has  been  administered  by  Captain  Ridley 
McLean. 

The  duties  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy  are 
as  follows:  to  revise  and  report  upon  the  legal  features  of  and 
have  recorded  the  proceedings  of  all  courts  martial,  courts  of 
inquiry,  boards  of  investigation,  inquest,  and  boards  for  the 
examination  of  officers  for  retirement  and  promotion  in  the  naval 
service;  to  prepare  charges  and  specifications  for  courts  martial, 
and  the  necessary  orders  convening  courts  martial  in  cases 
where  such  courts  are  ordered  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy; 
to  prepare  court-martial  orders  promulgating  the  final  action 
of  the  reviewing  authority  in  court-martial  cases;  to  prepare  the 
necessary  orders  convening  courts  of  inquiry  in  cases  where  such 
courts  are  ordered  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  boards  for 
the  examination  of  officers  for  promotion  and  retirement,  and  for 
the  examination  of  candidates  for  appointment  as  commissioned 
officers  in  the  Navy  other  than  midshipmen,  and  to  conduct  all 
official  correspondence  relating  to  such  courts  and  boards. 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  Judge  Advocate  General  to  examine 
and  report  upon  all  questions  relating  to  rank  and  precedence, 
to  promotions  and  retirements,  and  those  relating  to  the  validity 
of  the  proceedings  in  court-martial  cases;  all  matters  relating 
to  the  supervision  and  control  of  naval  prisons  and  prisoners; 
disciplinary  ships  and  detentioners;  the  removal  of  the  mark 
of  desertion;  the  correction  of  records  of  service  and  reporting 
thereupon  in  the  Regular  or  Volunteer  Navy;  certification  of 

243 


244  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

discharge  in  true  name;  pardons,  bills,  and  resolutions  introduced 
in  Congress  relating  to  the  personnel  and  referred  to  the  depart- 
ment for  report,  and  the  drafting  and  interpretation  of  statutes 
relating  to  the  personnel;  references  to  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Treasury  with  regard  to  pay  and  allowances  of  the  personnel; 
questions  involving  points  of  law  concerning  the  personnel;  pro- 
ceedings in  the  civil  courts  in  all  cases  concerning  the  personnel 
as  such;  and  to  conduct  the  correspondence  respecting  the  fore- 
going duties,  including  the  preparation  for  submission  to  the 
Attorney  General  of  all  questions  relating  to  subjects  coming 
under  his  own  cognizance  which  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  may 
direct  to  be  so  referred. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  Judge  Advocate  General  of  the 
Navy  investigates  and  reports  upon  questions  of  international 
law  which  present  themselves  to  the  Navy  Department  and  which 
are  referred  to  him.  In  the  same  way  that  this  office  is  charged 
with  the  supervision,  control,  and  regulation  of  naval  prisoners, 
so  is  it  also  charged  with  the  supervision,  control,  and  regulation 
of  prisoners  of  war.  The  officers  of  this  Department  have  been 
active  studying  and  digesting  the  experience  of  belligerent  na- 
tions during  the  present  war,  in  order  that  questions  concerning 
prisoners  of  war  confined  under  the  Navy  Department  in  future 
wars  may  embody  all  of  the  experience  derived  from  the  present 
conflict. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  that  officers  in  the  Navy  are  re- 
quired to  undergo  physical,  mental,  and  professional  examina- 
tion on  entrance,  and  on  the  occasion  of  each  successive  promo- 
tion, and  that  full  records  are  kept  of  the  duty  performed  by 
each.  All  records  of  this  nature,  together  with  the  necessary 
correspondence  incidental  to  conducting  these  examinations  and 
maintaining  the  records  of  officers,  is  conducted  by  this  office. 

Captain  McLean  and  naval  officers  in  charge  of  Naval  De- 
tention Barracks  and  Prison  Ships  have  made  a  very  careful 
study  of  desertion,  its  causes  and  punishments  and  the  rejection 
of  undesirables  in  the  Navy.  In  this  Secretary  Daniels  has 


THE  JUDGE  ADVOCATE  GENERAL  OF  THE  NAVY  245 

taken  keen  interest  and  advanced  certain  solutions  tending  to 
controvert  many  of  the  old  ideas  prevailing  as  to  recruiting, 
desertion,  discipline,  punishment,  and  naval  training. 

Notwithstanding  there  has  been  an  increase  of  over  5,000 
enlisted  men  during  the  past  year,  the  authorized  strength  of 
51,500  being  slightly  exceeded,  the  number  of  prisoners  was 
decreased  from  1,835  to  726,  warranting  the  abandonment  of 
the  Disciplinary  Ship  Topeka,  the  Disciplinary  Barracks,  Port 
Royal,  N.  C.,  and  the  detention  system  and  prison  on  board  the 
Philadelphia  on  the  west  coast.  About  eighty  per  cent,  of  those 
undergoing  confinement  for  purely  military  offenses  have  been 
restored  to  duty  on  probation  and  transferred  to  cruising  ships. 

There  was  a  general  belief  that  a  large  number  of  sailors  en- 
listed in  the  Navy  in  haste  and  remained  in  only  through  fear 
of  punishment.  The  new  disciplinary  system  indicates  that  the 
personnel  of  the  Navy  loves  the  service,  is  proud  of  it,  and  re- 
mains in  it  from  choice. 

A  regulation  is  now  in  force  requiring  that  enlisted  men  who 
violate  the  rules  by  overstaying  their  leave,  drunkenness,  etc., 
be  forthwith  dishonorably  discharged  and  their  parents  notified 
of  the  cause.  A  trial  is  being  made  of  the  principle  of  suspended 
and  indeterminate  sentences.  A  character  study  of  individuals 
is  being  made  by  medical  experts,  special  attention  being  given 
to  tests  of  mentality. 

Naval  officers  are  investigating  modern  methods  of  penology 
with  a  view  to  reclaiming  naval  delinquents  to  the  service 
through  probationary  sentences  and  assignment  to  cruising 
ships  instead  of  confinement  at  shore  stations.  Under  this 
system  instead  of  keeping  prisoners  in  detention  at  big  expense 
with  no  commensurate  returns  and  the  loss  of  training,  they  are 
now  given  opportunity  for  rehabilitation  and  at  the  same  time 
are  under  naval  training  and  performing  remunerative  service. 
It  has  been  possible  to  return  a  prison  guard  and  administrative 
force  of  13  officers  and  495  enlisted  men  of  the  Marine  Corps 
to  active  military  duty. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
THE  BUREAU  OF  YARDS  AND  DOCKS 

THE  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  is  administered  by  Rear 
Admiral  Frederic  R.  Harris,  U.  S.  N.,  assisted  by  forty  officers  of 
the  Corps  of  Civil  Engineers,  United  States  Navy. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  de- 
sign and  construction  of  public  works  of  the  Navy,  such  as 
dry  docks,  marine  railways,  building  ways,  harbor  works,  quay 
walls,  piers,  wharves,  slips,  dredging,  landings,  floating  and 
stationary  cranes,  power  plants,  coaling  plants;  heating,  light- 
ing, telephone,  water,  sewer,  and  railroad  systems;  roads,  walks, 
and  grounds;  bridges,  radio  towers,  hospitals  and  all  buildings 
for  whatever  purpose  needed,  under  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 
It  has  charge  of  all  means  of  transportation,  such  as  derricks, 
shears,  locomotives,  locomotive  cranes,  cars,  motor  trucks,  and 
all  vehicles,  horses,  teams,  subsistence,  and  necessary  operators 
and  teamsters  in  the  navy  yards.  It  provides  clerks  for  the 
office  of  the  commandant,  the  captain  of  the  yard,  and  public 
works  officer. 

In  general,  the  work  of  the  Bureau  is  carried  out  by  commis- 
sioned officers  of  the  Corps  of  Civil  Engineers,  United  States 
Navy,  whose  major  duties  comprise  the  construction,  repair 
and  maintenance  of  the  public  works  and  utilities  of  the  Navy. 

During  the  comparatively  recent  upbuilding  of  shore  estab- 
lishments of  the  Navy,  large  masonry  dry  docks  have  been  com- 
pleted at  the  navy  yards  New  York,  Norfolk,  Philadelphia,  and 
Charleston  on  the  east  coast,  and  at  Mare  Island  and  Puget 
Sound  on  the  west  coast.  In  addition  a  1,000-foot  dry  dock  is 
now  under  construction  at  the  Naval  Station,  Pearl  Harbor, 

246 


Placing  a  13-inch  gun  on  Battleship  Indiana 


Dry  dock  Navy  Yard,  New  York 


Photograph  by  Brown  Brothers 


Lighthouse  tenders  of  the  Treasury  Department  at  outbreak  of 
war  will  become  mine  planters  under  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps, 
and  for  which  complete  mine  planting  equipment  has  been  pro- 
vided 


Floating  derrick  Hercules,  capacity  150  tons,  New  York  Navy  Yard 


BUREAU  OF  YARDS  AND  DOCKS      247 

Hawaii.  This  dock  when  completed  is  estimated  to  cost  ap- 
proximately $4,986,500.  To  provide  an  entrance  channel  from 
the  sea  to  the  site  of  the  dock  and  the  naval  station  extensive 
dredging  operations  were  necessary,  over  $3,000,000  having  been 
expended  for  this  purpose  under  a  single  contract.  During  the 
last  ten  years  there  have  been  expended  under  the  cognizance 
of  this  Bureau  approximately  $70,500,000. 

The  Bureau  is  justly  proud  of  its  record  in  connection  with 
the  construction  and  operation  of  the  central  power  plants  at  the 
various  navy  yards,  these  central  plants  having  been  provided 
for  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1904  in  order  to  avoid  the  great  waste 
in  connection  with  the  operation  of  many  separate  plants  at  each 
yard.  Fourteen  such  central  power  plants  have  been  con- 
structed and  equipped  with  the  most  modern  apparatus.  To 
give  an  idea  as  to  their  magnitude  it  may  be  stated  that  these 
plants  produced  during  the  fiscal  year  1915  a  total  of  approxi- 
mately 50,000,000  kilowatt  hours  of  electric  power,  6,000,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  compressed  air,  and  3,000,000,000  pounds  of  steam. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  use  of  fuel  oil  as  a  source  of  power 
for  ships  has  led  to  the  construction  of  extensive  fuel  oil  storage 
plants,  some  seven  plants  having  been  completed,  with  many 
others  contemplated.  The  present  capacity  of  these  plants  is 
approximately  30,000,000  gallons  of  oil,  which  will  probably 
be  increased  to  150,000,000  gallons.  These  plants  are  equipped 
with  powerful  pumps  capable  of  delivering  heavy  oils  from  tanks 
to  ships  at  the  high  rate  of  1,000  gallons  per  minute.  To  safe- 
guard the  storage,  the  tanks  are  equipped  with  automatically 
controlled  fire  systems,  which  provide  in  case  of  fire  a  blanket  of 
inert  gas  in  the  form  of  foam  over  the  surface  of  the  oil. 

The  Bureau  has  had  charge  of  the  design  and  construction  of 
radio  towers  and  other  public  works  connected  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  high-power  radio  stations  of  the  Navy.  The  loca- 
tion of  these  stations  is  shown  on  the  Military-Naval  Map. 
The  first  of  these  stations  to  be  completed  was  that  at  Arling- 
ton, Virginia.  Others  have  followed  at  Colon  and  Balboa  on 


248  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

the  Isthmus;  Chicago,  Illinois;  Chelsea,  Massachusetts;  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.;  Key  West,  Florida;  New  Orleans,  Louisiana; 
Point  Isabel,  Texas;  Guantanamo,  Cuba;  Cordova,  Alaska; 
Keyport,  Washington;  San  Diego,  California;  Pearl  Harbor, 
Hawaii;  Island  of  Guam;  Cavite,  P.  I.  The  stations  in  Hawaii 
have  been  in  telephonic  communication  by  radio  wireless  with 
the  radio  station  at  Arlington,  Virginia. 

This  Bureau  has  designed  and  constructed  practically  all  of 
the  important  graving  docks  in  the  United  States.  Most  of 
these  docks  have  been  built  by  and  for  the  Navy.  It  has,  by 
arrangements  made  between  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachu- 
setts and  the  Navy  Department,  designed  and  is  supervising 
the  construction  of  the  state  graving  docks  in  Boston.  It 
will  also  give  general  supervision  to  the  graving  dock  to  be 
constructed  by  the  Union  Iron  Works  in  San  Francisco,  Cali- 
fornia. 

A  member  of  the  Corps  of  Civil  Engineers  of  the  Navy  has 
been  connected  with  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  as 
Commissioner  and  also  Engineer  of  Terminal  Construction. 
This  Bureau  has  been  represented  by  one  of  its  officers  on  the 
International  Board  of  Consulting  Engineers. 

In  recent  years  this  corps  has  earned  unusual  distinction 
for  so  small  an  organization  by  having  two  of  its  members, 
Peary  and  Rousseau,  receive  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  promo- 
tion to  the  rank  of  Rear- Admiral  for  the  discovery  of  the  North 
Pole  and  for  work  on  the  Panama  Canal,  respectively. 


"It  is  better  to  be  ready  for  war  and  not  have  it  than  to  have  war  and  not 
be  ready  for  it." — General  Leonard  Wood,  extract  from  speech  delivered  before 
New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce,  March  22,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  BUREAU  OF  NAVIGATION 

THE  Bureau  of  Navigation  is  presided  over 
by  Admiral  Leigh  C.  Palmer,  U.  S.  N. 

This  Bureau  issues,  records,  and  enforces 
the  orders  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as 
relate  to  the  individual  officers  of  the  Navy. 

It  has  charge  of  the  training  and  education 
of  the  line  officers  and  of  enlisted  men  (except 
the  Hospital  Corps)  at  schools  and  stations  and  in  vessels 
maintained  for  that  purpose;  the  upkeep  and  operation  of  the 
Naval  Academy,  of  technical  schools,  of  the  apprentice  seamen 
establishments,  and  of  the  Naval  Home,  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. ; 
the  upkeep  and  the  payment  of  the  operating  expenses  of  the 
Naval  War  College;  the  enlistment,  assignment  to  duty,  and  dis- 
charge of  all  enlisted  men. 

It  has  under  its  direction  all  rendezvous  and  receiving  ships 
and  provides  transportation  for  all  enlisted  men. 

It  establishes  the  complements  of  all  ships  in  commission. 
It  keeps  the  records  of  service  of  all  officers  and  men,  and 
prepares  an  annual  Navy  register  for  publication,  embodying 
therein  data  as  to  fleets,  squadrons,  and  ships  furnished  by  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations.  All  communications  to  or  from 
ships  in  commission  relating  to  the  personnel  of  such  ships  are 
forwarded  through  this  bureau. 

It  is  charged  with  all  matters  pertaining  to  applications  for 
appointments  and  commission  in  the  Navy. 

The  questions  of  naval  discipline,  rewards,  and  punishments 
are  submitted  by  this  bureau  for  the  action  of  the  Secretary  of 

249 


250  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

the  Navy.  The  records  of  all  general  courts-martial  and  courts 
of  inquiry  involving  the  personnel  of  the  Navy  are,  before  final 
action,  referred  to  this  bureau  for  comment  as  to  disciplinary 
features.  It  supervises  the  upkeep  and  operation  of  the 
Hydrographic  Office,  the  Naval  Observatory,  Nautical  Almanac 
and  Compass  Offices;  the  supply  of  ships  with  navigational 
outfits,  including  instruments,  and  with  the  maintenance  and 
repair  of  same;  the  collection  of  foreign  surveys;  the  publication 
and  supply  of  charts,  sailing  directions,  and  nautical  works; 
and  the  dissemination  of  nautical,  hydrographic,  and  meteorolog- 
ical information  to  the  Navy  and  mercantile  marine.  It  also 
has  charge  of  all  ocean  and  lake  surveys  and  ships'  and  crews' 
libraries;  it  defrays  the  expenses  of  pilotage  of  all  ships  in  com- 
mission. 

For  the  service  of  the  Hydrographic  Office  several  vessels 
specially  designed  and  equipped  are  operated  in  all  parts  of  the 
oceans  contiguous  to  the  United  States.  In  addition  hundreds 
of  reports  from  private  vessels  are  received  yearly  and  incor- 
porated in  the  work  of  this  office. 

The  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington,  D.  C.  furnishes  the 
entire  country  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  the  standard 
time  at  noon  each  day  by  telegraph  and  radio,  while  the  chron- 
ometer and  time  station,  Mare  Island,  California,  does  the  same 
for  the  Pacific  Coast  country.  Vessels  navigating  the  North 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  furnished  standard  time  twice 
daily,  at  noon  and  10  p.  M.  through  navy  radio  stations  and,  for 
those  on  the  North  and  East  Pacific,  from  Mare  Island. 

The  following  items  of  general  interest  appear  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  Chief  of  this  bureau  for  1915 : 

Under  a  recent  act  of  Congress  the  Commanders-in-Chief  of  the 
Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Asiatic  Fleets  have  the  rank  (without  pay) 
of  Admiral  while  so  serving,  and  the  officer  second  in  command  of 
the  Atlantic  Fleet,  the  rank  of  Vice  Admiral  while  so  serving,  to 
assure  commensurate  rank  and  to  place  our  commanding  offi- 
cers on  an  equality  as  to  rank  and  precedence  with  officers  of 


BUREAU  OF  NAVIGATION 


251 


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Sea  duty  
Shore  duty  beyond  seas,  including  attaches 
Training  stations,  Naval  Academy,  War  Co 
staff,  and  receiving  ships  .... 
War  College  post  graduates  and  students 
Aviation  duty,  including  North  Carolina 
status  
Radio  stations  in  United  States 

Shore  duty  other  than  3,  4,  5,  and  6  .  . 
Total  
Percentage  at  sea  

M  «   «}        t  VO       >O  *»OO          Ol        O 
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252  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

foreign  navies  holding  similar  positions.  The  rank  of  Admiral 
is  recommended  for  the  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  in  as  much 
as  he  is  responsible  for  the  proper  organization  and  preparation 
for  war  of  the  fleets  which  are  commanded  by  Admirals. 

The  creation  of  the  office  of  Chief  of  Naval  Operations  is 
reported  as  leaving  nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  organization  and 
cooperation  of  the  various  bureaus. 

It  is  reported  that  the  number  of  line  officers  that  would  be 
required  for  shore  duty  in  time  of  war  is  264. 

The  table  on  page  251  shows  the  normal  distribution  of 
officers  at  sea  and  on  shore. 

Very  extensive  post  graduate  instruction  is  afforded  naval 
officers  to  better  fit  them  for  the  higher  duties  of  their  profession, 
summarized  as  follows: 

Naval  War  College  at  Newport,  R.  1 30 

Steam,  electrical,  and  radio  engineering  at  Naval  Academy  and  Columbia  University  .  .  40 
Ordnance  at  Naval  Academy,  Naval  Proving  Grounds,  Gun  Factory,  Carnegie  Steel  Co., 

Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  Bausch  &  Lomb  Co 9 

Civil  Engineering  at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 3 

Naval  Construction  at  Mass.  Institute  of  Technology la 

Torpedoes  on  armored  cruiser  Montana ai 

Law  at  Georgetown  University  and  George  Washington  University 6 

Total 121 

THE   NAVAL  RESERVE 

The  Naval  Reserve  consists  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
who  have  been  or  may  be  entitled  to  be  honorably  discharged 
from  the  Navy  after  not  less  than  one  four-year  term  of  enlist- 
ment or  after  a  term  of  enlistment  during  minority.  The  pay 
while  so  serving  is  graded  from  $12  per  annum  after  four  years' 
service,  to  one-half  pay  after  twenty  years'  service. 

When  actively  employed  with  the  Navy  members  of  the 
Reserve  receive  the  rate  of  pay  when  last  honorably  discharged 
and,  in  addition  thereto,  their  pay  in  the  Reserve. 

Active  service  with  the  Navy  may  be  requested  at  any  time 
after  entrance  to  the  Naval  Reserve  and  is  compulsory  in  time 
of  war.  A  Naval  Reserve  button,  which  may  be  worn  with  civi- 
lian clothes,  is  now  issued  to  all  members  of  the  Naval  Reserve. 


BUREAU  OF  NAVIGATION  253 

There  is  a  quarterly  muster  for  the  purpose  of  inspection 
and  signing  the  pay  roll.  Members  of  the  Reserve  of  each  dis- 
trict are  organized  into  groups  and  the  senior  members  placed 
in  charge.  Members  living  in  a  community  where  there  are 
receiving  or  station  ships  report  to  the  commanding  officer  of 
such  ship  for  muster  and  inspection.  Those  living  in  isolated 
places  fill  out  their  own  muster  card.  The  present  strength  of 
the  Naval  Reserve  is  four  hundred  and  ten. 


RECRUITING 

The  recent  reorganization  of  the  recruiting  service  into  two 
great  divisions  (separated  approximately  by  longitude  103° 
West),  the  Eastern  Recruiting  District  in  charge  of  an  officer 
stationed  at  New  York,  and  the  Western  Recruiting  District 
in  charge  of  an  officer  stationed  at  San  Francisco;  to  changes 
in  the  system  of  discipline  and  punishments ;  to  increased  educa- 
tional and  trade  school  advantages  for  enlisted  men,  and  creating 
of  the  Naval  Reserve,  account  for  the  following  conditions : 

Reenlistments  and  extended  enlistments  have  increased 
from  fifty-four  per  cent,  in  1912,  to  eighty-five  per  cent,  in  1915, 
with  a  corresponding  increase  in  naval  efficiency,  and  the  lawful 
authorized  quota  of  enlisted  men  in  the  Navy  is  now  filled. 

Training  Stations  for  enlisted  men  are  maintained  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  Norfolk,  Va.,  Great  Lakes,  111.,  and  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
in  which  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  new  men  are  given  two  to  six 
months'  training. 

In  order  to  supply  men  qualified  for  certain  ratings  which 
carry  increased  pay  the  following  trade  schools  are  maintained : 

Electrical  Schools  at  New  York,  and  Mare  Island,  Cal. 

Machinist  Mates'  School,  and  Coppersmith  School,  fct 
Charleston,  S.  C. 

Torpedo  School  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

Fuel  Oil  School  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Artificer  School  at  Norfolk. 


254  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Yeomen  Schools,  Hospital  Attendant  Schools,  and  Commissary 
Schools,  at  Newport,  R.  L,  and  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Musician  Schools  at  Norfolk,  Va.  and  San  Francisco. 
Mess  Attendant  School  at  Norfolk,  Va. 


NAVAL  AUXILIARY   SERVICE 

The  Naval  Auxiliary  Service,  consisting  of  225  officers  and 
1,102  men,  manning  18  auxiliary  ships  at  an  annual  cost  of 
$793,922.30,  steamed  a  total  of  379,379  miles  and  delivered 
384,497  tons  of  coal,  257,004  barrels  of  oil,  37,213,949  pounds  of 
general  cargo,  and  2,127  passengers  to  Naval  vessels  and  stations 
at  a  large  saving  over  the  prevailing  commercial  rates. 


THE   FISH   COMMISSION 

There  are  assigned  to  the  vessels  of  the  Fish  Commission  10 
officers  and  115  enlisted  men. 


"The  most  important  matter  now  before  the  American  people  is  adequate 
preparedness,  not  for  aggression  against  any  nation,  for  we  are  a  peaceful  people, 
but  for  national  defense. 

"We  must  be  prepared  at  all  times  to  defend  our  ocean-borne  commerce,  our 
flag  on  the  seven  seas,  our  citizens  in  any  alien  land,  and  our  national  honor." — 
Robert  F.  Broussard,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Louisiana,  Member  of  the  Senate 
Military  Affairs  Committee. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE  BUREAU  OF  ORDNANCE 

THE  Bureau  of  Ordnance  is  administered 
by  Rear  Admiral  Joseph  Strauss,  U.  S.  N., 
and  a  number  of  assistants  detailed  from 
officers  of  the  line. 

The  duties  of  this  Bureau  comprise  all 
that  relate  to  the  upkeep,  repair,  and  op- 
eration of  the  torpedo  stations,  the  naval 
proving  ground  and  magazines  on  shore;  the  manufacture  of 
offensive  and  defensive  arms  and  apparatus  (including  torpedoes 
and  armor);  all  ammunition  and  war  explosives.  It  procures 
or  manufactures  all  machinery,  apparatus,  equipment,  material, 
and  supplies  required  by  or  for  use  with  the  above. 

It  inspects,  as  the  work  proceeds,  the  installation  of  the  per- 
manent fixtures  of  the  armament  and  its  accessories  on  board 
ship,  and  the  methods  of  handling,  stowing,  and  transporting 
ammunition  and  torpedoes.  It  designs  and  constructs  all 
turret  ammunition  hoists,  determines  the  requirements  and 
location  of  all  ammunition  hoists,  and  the  method  of  construc- 
tion of  armories  and  ammunition  rooms  on  shipboard.  It  in- 
stalls all  parts  of  the  armament  and  its  accessories  which  are 
not  permanently  attached  to  any  portion  of  the  structure  of  the 
hull,  excepting  turret  guns,  turret  mounts,  and  ammunition 
hoists,  and  such  other  mounts  as  require  simultaneous  structural 
work  in  connection  with  installation  or  removal.  It  confers 
with  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  respecting  items 
coming  under  that  Bureau. 

It  has  supervision  of  all  electrically  operated  ammunition 

255 


256  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

hoists,  rammers,  and  gun-elevating  gear  which  are  in  turrets; 
of  electric  training  and  elevating  gear  for  gun  mounts  in  turrets; 
of  electrically  operated  air  compressors  for  charging  torpedoes; 
and  of  all  range  finders  and  battle  order  and  range  transmitters 
and  indicators. 

During  the  year  1915  guns  for  the  new  ships  Pennsylvania  and 
Arizona  were  completed  and  work  progressed  uninterruptedly 
on  guns  for  the  California,  Idaho,  Mississippi,  and  for  destroy- 
ers, submarines  and  auxiliaries  under  construction.  A  number 
of  guns  of  various  calibers  on  various  ships  were  replaced.  All 
Colt  automatic  machine  guns  were  modified  to  take  service 
ammunition.  The  efficiency  of  the  Benet  Mercie  automatic 
machine  guns  were  increased  by  slight  modifications. 

To  keep  pace  with  the  increased  range  of  modern  naval  guns 
the  14-inch  guns  for  the  California,  Mississippi,  and  Idaho  are 
50  calibers  in  length,  and  with  enlarged  powder  chambers.  Some 
of  these  guns  have  been  tested.  Although  of  lesser  caliber  and 
weight  than  the  foreign  15-inch  guns  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  is 
of  the  opinion  that  they  are  capable  of  penetrating  the  heaviest 
armor  at  oblique  impacts  and  at  the  greatest  effective  battle 
range  and  have  the  advantage  of  flatter  trajectory  with  greater 
volume  of  fire  due  to  the  increased  number  that  can  be  mounted 
on  any  ship  of  equal  displacement. 

The  United  States  Navy  16-inch  gun,  forty-five  calibers,  was 
tested  in  August,  1914,  and  fulfilled  the  highest  expectation. 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  securing  projectiles  to  meet 
the  rigid  specifications  from  the  four  private  manufacturers  hav- 
ing contracts  with  the  Navy  Department .  The  contract  price  for 
1915  for  14-inch  projectiles  was  $415  each,  an  increase  of  $95  or 
thirty  per  cent,  over  the  1914  contracts.  The  manufacture  of 
projectiles  at  the  Naval  gun  factory  is  being  developed  and  a 
separate  factory  has  been  recommended. 

There  has  been  developed  a  satisfactory  anti-air-craft  gun 
and  projectile  and  an  armor  piercing  projectile  carrying  a  large 
amount  of  high  explosives.  Aeroplane  bombs  are  being  provided. 


BUREAU  OF  ORDNANCE  257 

The  Naval  powder  factory  at  Indian  Head,  Md.,  produced 
3,984,978  pounds  of  smokeless  powder  at  a  coast  of  thirty-four 
cents  per  pound,  against  a  cost  of  thirty-eight  cents  per  pound 
in  1914.  This  was  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  Navy  require- 
ments. It  is  expected  to  produce  5,000,000  pounds  in  1916  and 
6,000,000  in  1917.  The  cost,  however,  will  be  materially  in- 
creased on  account  of  the  European  War.  The  output  of  pri- 
vate powder  factories  has  been  enormously  developed  and  their 
conservation  for  the  benefit  of  the  United  States  in  time  of 
war  is  a  problem  requiring  careful  consideration  when  the 
European  War  is  over.  The  stable  life  of  smokeless  powder  is  not 
less  than  fifteen  to  twenty  years. 

A  policy  of  thoroughly  inspecting  the  ammunition  of  ships, 
when  they  go  to  navy  yard  for  repairs,  has  been  adopted. 

Contracts  for  24,500  tons  of  armor  were  let  during  the  year 
at  prices  averaging  about  $440  per  ton  for  Class  A  1,  $500  for 
Class  A  2,  $475  for  Class  B,  and  $450  for  Class  C. 

Orders  for  1,602  torpedoes  were  placed  during  the  year,  912 
being  with  private  factories  and  690  at  Naval  torpedo  factories. 
With  increased  capacity  now  available  at  Naval  stations  about 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  Department's  requirements  can  be  supplied 
therein. 

Much  attention  is  now  being  paid  to  submarine  mining 
and  mine  sweeping.  An  additional  officer  has  been  assigned 
to  this  Bureau  to  take  charge  of  this  subject.  In  addition  to 
the  mine  layer  San  Francisco  the  Baltimore  and  Dubuque  have 
been  fitted  out  as  mine  layers  and  mine  instruction  ships. 
Several  old  torpedo  vessels  have  been  equipped  for  sweeping. 
A  mining  division  has  been  formed  in  the  fleet.  All  destroyers 
are  being  fitted  for  sweeping,  as  well  as  several  gunboats. 

The  high  efficiency  of  the  Naval  gun  factory  was  increased  dur- 
ing the  year  through  the  new  methods,  experimentation,  and  ana- 
lysis in  steel,  new  machinery,  and  the  utilization  of  scrap  metal. 
The  total  weight  of  shipments  exceeded  23,000,000  pounds. 
The  number  of  guns  completed,  lined,  or  overhauled  was  445. 


258  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Bureau's  recommendation  the  past  two  years  to  extend 
to  its  employees  the  law  granting  pecuniary  rewards  for  im- 
provements in  devices  to  employees  of  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment of  the  Army,  has  not  yet  been  favorably  considered  by 
Congress. 


The  spectacle  of  millions  of  our  citizens  rising  in  their  might  between  sun  and 
sun  to  face  a  disciplined  enemy  is  inspiring  in  peace  but  historically  discouraging 
in  war.  However  brave  the  men,  the  soldier  must  be  drilled,  disciplined,  and 
prepared.  The  sober  truth  of  history  not  prepared  for  exclusive  consumption  in 
the  public  schools  is  that  we  have  paid  a  bloody  price  for  the  delusive  belief  in 
our  superiority  and  our  indifference  to  the  necessity  of  the  drill  sergeant. 

DEFENSE,   NOT  AGGRESSION,   OUB  POLICY 

Our  military  and  naval  forces  will  be  purely  defensive.  The  policy  of  our 
republic  is  against  territorial  aggression.  We  wish  to  conquer  no  nation.  We 
have  no  revenge  to  wreak,  no  dominion  to  assert,  no  policies  to  extend  to  strange 
peoples.  We  are  content  to  develop  the  resources  and  wisely  to  govern  and 
promote  the  future  welfare  of  what  we  now  have  and  of  our  own  people.  Our 
policy  of  preparedness  is  therefore  one  solely  of  self-defense  against  the  possible 
aggressor.  The  lack  of  preparation  is  an  invitation  to  that  aggressor  to  invade, 
to  plunder,  to  conquer. — From  a  speech  by  Senator  Lawrence  Y.  Sherman  of 
Illinois  at  Minneapolis,  November  16,  1915. 


Navy  Yard,  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire 


Floating  Dock  Dewey.     Docking  Battleship  Connecticut 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE  BUREAU  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR 

THE  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  is 
administered  by  the  Chief  Constructor,  Ad- 
miral D.  W.  Taylor,  U.  S.  N.  assisted  by 
9  Naval  Constructors  with  rank  as  follows:  1 
Commander,  3  Lieutenant  Commanders,  and  5 
Lieutenants. 

The  work  under  this  Bureau  is  done  by  the  Construction 
Corps,  the  authorized  strength  of  which  is  ninety-nine  officers. 
All  Naval  Constructors  are  Naval  Academy  graduates  who  have 
been  specially  selected  for  this  work.  Usually  only  the  honor 
men  of  each  class  are  detailed  to  the  Construction  Corps. 
Formerly  the  officers  of  this  corps  were  given  a  post-graduate 
course  in  naval  construction  in  one  of  the  schools  abroad — 
English,  French,  or  German,  but  in  1901  a  course  in  warship 
design  was  started  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
where  all  Naval  Constructors  now  receive  their  post-graduate 
education. 

The  officers  of  the  Construction  Corps  are  engaged  mainly 
in  management  work  at  the  navy  yards  in  repairing  and  alter- 
ing old  vessels  and  in  building  new  vessels.  A  considerable 
number  of  Naval  Constructors  are  also  on  duty  at  the  various 
private  ship-building  plants,  superintending  the  construction 
of  naval  vessels.  The  management  of  many  of  the  shipbuilding 
yards  in  the  United  States  is  in  the  hands  of  former  Naval 
Constructors  who  have  resigned  because  of  the  great  oppor- 
tunity for  financial  betterment  in  private  life. 

Upon  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  devolves  the  re- 

259 


2/60  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

sponsibility  for  the  design  of  all  naval  vessels.  The  immediate 
responsibility  for  the  design  and  proper  working  of  certain  fea- 
tures of  ships  rests  with  two  other  Bureaus  in  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment, namely,  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  and  the  Bureau 
of  Ordnance.  Broadly  speaking,  the  cognizance  of  the  three  tech- 
nical bureaus  under  the  Navy  Department  places  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  propelling  machinery  under  the  Bureau  of  Steam 
Engineering,  the  armor  and  armament  under  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance,  and  the  hull  with  its  extensive  equipment  and 
auxiliaries  under  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair.  The 
last  mentioned  Bureau  installs  the  guns  and  armor  for  the  Bureau 
of  Ordnance.  All  such  auxiliaries  and  equipment  as  anchors, 
capstans,  windlasses,  steering  gear,  ventilating  apparatus, 
cordage,  flags,  draining  and  fire  systems,  etc.,  are  under  the 
Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  providing  submarines  for  the 
Navy,  the  question  of  design  has  in  the  past  been  left  in  great 
measure  to  the  firms  submitting  bids,  since  builders  controlled 
many  patents  and  methods  of  their  own.  Complete  designs 
for  submarines  are  now  prepared  by  this  Bureau,  but  builders 
are  allowed  to  submit  bids  on  then"  own  designs  in  addition  to 
those  prepared  by  the  Bureau. 

In  the  design  of  the  California  class  of  battleships  which  are 
to  be  electrically  propelled,  considerable  improvement  has  been 
made  in  the  habitability  of  the  ships,  especially  in  the  living 
conditions  for  the  enlisted  men.  These  ships  will  have  commodi- 
ous reading  and  recreation  rooms,  laundries  and  improved 
culinary  and  washing  arrangements. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  scientific  activities  under  the 
Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  is  the  model  basin  at  the 
Washington  Navy  Yard.  The  present  Chief  Constructor  of 
the  Navy,  Rear  Admiral  D.  W.  Taylor,  U.  S.  N.,  is  the  de- 
signer of  the  apparatus  used  at  the  model  basin.  The  purpose 
of  this  basin  is  to  ascertain  by  experimentation  on  small  models 
what  the  behavior  of  the  full-sized  ship  will  be  as  to  speed 


BUREAU  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR    261 

and  seaworthiness.  Before  the  advent  of  model  basin  methods, 
it  was  largely  a  matter  of  guess  as  to  what  engine  power  was 
necessary  and  what  shape  of  hull  was  best  adapted  for  giving 
the  full-size  ship  the  desired  speed.  This  cannot  be  worked  out 
by  pure  mathematics.  By  the  methods  devised  and  the  re- 
search work  done  by  Admiral  Taylor,  who  is  the  world's  great- 
est authority  on  the  propulsion  of  ships,  it  is  now  possible  to 
ascertain  what  the  behavior  of  the  largest  battleship  will  be 
by  towing  a  small  model  of  the  vessel.  Models  are  also  built 
by  the  Government  and  towed  for  private  parties  on  payment 
of  the  cost  involved  in  making  the  experiments. 

An  experimental  wind  tunnel  for  testing  aeroplane  models 
is  another  invaluable  appliance  developed  by  this  Bureau,  to 
which  private  builders  of  air  craft  have  access.  The  data  thus 
obtained  has  been  of  value  in  designing  suitable  pontoons  and 
floats  for  hydro-aeroplanes  and  for  measuring  the  coefficient 
of  air  friction  for  various  varnished  and  unvarnished  fabrics 
used  on  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles.  A  large  aeroplane  with  wide 
range  of  speed  has  been  designed  and  is  being  constructed  at  the 
Washington  Navy  Yard  under  this  Bureau  for  experimental 
purposes  and  tests  at  Pensacola,  Florida. 

Extensive  research  work  has  in  the  past  two  years  been  done 
by  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair  on  deep-sea  diving. 
Laboratory  experiments  were  first  carried  out  in  a  tank  in  which 
the  depths  desired  were  simulated  by  means  of  air  pressure. 
The  results  were  later  checked  by  actual  diving  operations  in 
water  of  great  depth.  These  tests  demonstrated  the  practica- 
bility of  descending  with  safety  to  greater  depths  of  water 
than  had  hitherto  been  reached  by  divers.  The  results  of  this 
research  work  have  been  published  and  are  distributed  free  to 
those  interested. 

It  devolved  upon  this  Bureau  to  perform  the  unparalleled 
salvage  operation  of  raising  the  ill-fated  submarine  F-4,  weighing 
265  tons,  from  a  depth  of  300  feet,  off  Honolulu  Harbor,  Hawaii. 
Special  apparatus  had  to  be  designed  throughout  for  this  pur- 


262  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

pose  as  none  of  the  conventional  salvage  metLods  were  applic- 
able to  this  depth.  The  equipment  used  was  designed  and  the 
salvage  work  was  directed  by  Naval  Constructor  Julius  A. 
Furer,  U.  S.  N. 

The  illustration  facing  page  000  is  from   Popular  Science 
Monthly,  December,  1915. 


"Neutrality  is  not  merely  a  collocation  of  rights,  but  it  involves  the  mainte- 
nance of  duties.  In  order  to  maintain  those  duties,  war  may  be  necessary. 
War  was  necessary  and  was  fought  in  1812  in  defense  of  the  characteristic 
American  policy  of  neutrality,  which  had  suffered  far  less  serious  assaults  than 
those  of  the  past  year. 

"It  is  thus  evident  that  by  merely  declaring  ourselves  neutral  we  cannot 
keep  out  of  war.  Like  any  other  great  national  policy,  it  will  involve  force  to 
defend  that  neutrality  when  attacked. 

"American  nationality  and  American  neutrality  can  only  be  defended  and 
preserved  by  the  realization  of  what  our  relation  to  foreign  nations  must  be — an 
effective  comprehension  of  the  principles  which  we  must  champion  and  a  readi- 
ness to  prepare  for  such  championship  by  adequate  national  sacrifices.  Democ- 
racy cannot  live  unless  it  can  defend  itself.  Manhood  suffrage  necessarily 
comports  manhood  service.  Logic  has  been  verified  by  recent  history." — 
Frederic  R.  Coudert,  an  American  lawyer  of  international  reputation,  in  the 
February  issue  of  American  Defense. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  BUREAU  OF  STEAM  ENGINEERING 

THE  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  is  administered  by 
the  Engineer-in-Chief ,  U.  S.  N.  assisted  by  officers  of  the  line  of 
the  Navy. 

The  duties  of  this  Bureau  comprise  all  that  relates  to  design- 
ing, building,  fitting  out,  and  repairing  machinery  used  for  the 
propulsion  of  naval  ships,  the  steam  pumps,  connections  of 
ships,  and  the  steam  machinery  necessary  for  actuating  the  ap- 
paratus by  which  turrets  are  turned.  It  has  similar  duties  in 
regard  to  the  motive  power  of  aeroplanes. 

It  supervises  the  entire  system  of  interior  communications. 
It  is  specifically  charged  with  the  design,  supply,  installation, 
maintenance,  and  repair  of  all  means  of  interior  and  exterior 
signal  communications  (except  range  finders  and  battle  order 
and  range  transmitters  and  indicators)  and  of  all  electrical 
appliances  of  whatsoever  nature  on  board  naval  vessels,  except 
motors  and  their  controlling  apparatus  used  to  operate  the  ma- 
chinery belonging  to  other  bureaus. 

It  supplies  and  installs  all  conduit  and  molding  or  other  means 
for  carrying  electric  wiring,  the  plans  for  such  installation  being 
made  after  consultation  with  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and 
Repair  and  being  subject  to  the  approval  of  that  Bureau. 

It  has  charge  of  the  design,  manufacture,  installation,  main- 
tenance, and  repair  of  the  radio  outfits  on  board  ship  and  on 
shore. 

It  has  supervision  and  control  of  the  upkeep  and  operation  of 
the  Engineering  Experiment  Station  at  Annapolis,  Md. 

This  Bureau  was  materially  restricted  in  its  outpost  and  opera- 

263 


264  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

tions  the  past  year  due  to  the  reduction  of  its  appropriations 
below  that  of  previous  years.  There  was  a  material  increase  in 
the  size  and  horsepower  of  the  fleet,  and  the  European  War 
greatly  increased  the  cost  of  raw  materials  and  supplies  of  all 
kinds,  and  caused  delays  in  deliveries,  circumstances  over  which 
the  Bureau  had  no  control.  There  was  considerable  delay  in 
completing  designs  for  new  ships,  due  to  the  shortage  of  drafts- 
men and  technical  employees.  During  the  year  the  electric 
plants  of  twenty-six  destroyers  were  doubled  and  large  search- 
lights installed  thereon. 

The  Darien  radio  station,  Canal  Zone,  the  first  of  the  chain  of 
high-power  radio  stations  provided  for  1912,  was  completed 
May,  1915.  This  affords  constant  direct  communication  be- 
tween Washington  and  Panama.  The  success  of  this  station 
has  exceeded  the  anticipations  of  the  Department.  This 
radio  system  is  of  value  not  only  to  the  Navy  and  War  Depart- 
ments, but  to  the  State  Department  and  commercial  interests 
in  general.  The  complete  system  will  comprise  about  fifty 
shore  stations.  Naval  Militia  organizations  are  being  equipped 
with  field  sets  for  training  purposes  and  for  use  in  the  field. 

The  Bureau  inspects  all  fuel  for  the  Fleet.  Tests  of  Alaska 
coal  show  it  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  for  use  on  naval  vessels. 

At  New  London,  Conn.,  a  prolonged  test  of  three  methods  of 
storing  coal  is  being  conducted:  (a)  in  the  open;  (b)  under  cover, 
(c)  under  water.  This  test  has  been  going  on  for  four  years 
without  any  conclusive  evidence  having  been  developed  as  to 
the  best  method. 

Through  cooperation  with  the  Bureau  of  Standards  and 
Experimentations,  much  progress  has  been  made  in  standardiz- 
ing specifications,  the  practice  now  being  to  make  annual  con- 
tracts instead  of  short  contracts.  An  experiment  station  is 
maintained  for  this  purpose  under  a  staff  of  experts,  who  are 
not  sufficient  hi  number,  however,  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  Bureau.  This  station  is  maintained  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy, Annapolis,  and  in  addition  to  its  work  of  standardization 


BUREAU  OF  STEAM  ENGINEERS  265 

makes  tests  of  steel,  fuel,  packing,  and  other  materials  used  by 
the  Bureau,  with  a  view  to  improving  specifications. 

An  experienced  inspection  force  is  maintained  at  private 
plants  which  have  large  contracts  for  materials  under  the 
cognizance  of  the  Bureau. 


"  When  the  great  interests  of  a  nation,  her  dignity,  her  rights,  the  resources  of 
her  livelihood  or  even  her  liberty  and  her  honor  are  at  stake,  men  are  in  duty 
bound  to  go  to  war,  to  wage  battle  and  risk  their  lives.  There  are  considerations 
in  this  world  which  are  higher  than  human  lives.  There  are  superhuman  in- 
terests, there  are  ideals  dearer  than  our  own  persons,  for  which  it  is  worth  while 
struggling,  suffering,  fighting,  and  dying.  Life  is  not  the  highest  boon  of  exis- 
tence, and  no  sentimental  reasons  based  on  the  notion  of  the  sacredness  of  life 
will  abolish  struggle  in  the  world  or  make  war  impossible." — Dr.  Paul  Cams. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  BUREAU  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  ACCOUNTS 

THE  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts  is  adminstered  by  the 
Paymaster  General  of  the  Navy,  assisted  by  various  other 
officers  of  the  Pay  Corps. 

It  is  the  fiscal  or  business  agent  of  the  Navy  Department, 
attends  to  the  purchase,  reception,  storage,  care,  custody, 
transfer,  shipment,  and  issue  of  all  supplies  for  the  Naval  estab- 
lishment, and  keeps  property  accounts  for  same,  except  for  the 
Marine  Corps  and  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery.  It 
procures  all  fuel  and  coal  for  steamers  and  ships,  including 
expense  of  transportation,  storage,  and  handling;  also  water  for 
all  purposes  on  board  naval  vessels. 

It  supplies  funds  for  disbursing  officers  and  keeps  the  money 
accounts  of  the  Naval  establishment  and  all  manufacturing 
and  operating  expense  accounts  at  navy  yards  and  stations. 
It  prepares  estimates  for  the  pay  of  officers  and  enlisted  men 
and  attends  to  the  payment  of  same. 

Scientific  management  has  been  developed  to  a  very  high 
degree  in  the  conduct  of  its  affairs.  Efficiency  and  a  proper 
safeguarding  of  the  interests  of  the  Naval  establishment  is  the 
keynote  of  every  transaction.  A  Naval  Pay  Officers'  School 
is  maintained  for  the  special  training  of  its  officers  in  accounting 
and  economics.  Constant  analysis  and  investigation  is  going 
on  with  a  view  to  reduction  in  operating  and  maintenance 
expenditures  of  every  description. 

The  competitive  system  of  bidding  has  here  reached  possibly 
its  highest  development  in  the  Government  Service.  Speci- 
fications describing  in  exact  detail  all  ordinary  kinds  of  com- 

266 


U.  S.  Naval  Radio  Station,  Balboa,  Canal  Zone 


sooroot-Tcwu 


•JTE.LL-TOWLLJ-AT-THRIL' 
•VJ-NAVAUADIOJTATDNJ- 

•  R.E.JLP,VATiOl-.CHLLJLA-nAJI  • 

•  HAVT-TAR,D:WAJHIHGTON'D.-G.  • 

•AWD-LADIQ-VIUCillJIA.- 


Old  and  new  style  litters  and  litter  drill  in  the  Navy 


BUREAU  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  ACCOUNTS       267 

mercial  supplies  are  issued  and  every  effort  is  made  to  have 
these  specifications  definitive  of  the  quality  requujed  and  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  conformity  with  generally  accepted  com- 
mercial standards.  These  specifications  are  recognized  as 
authoritative  in  many  other  branches  of  the  Government  Ser- 
vice and  establish  a  basis  of  quality  for  a  great  portion  of  the 
commercial  supplies  required  in  the  Government  Service. 

The  whole  problem  of  fleet  supply  has  been  carefully  studied 
and  comprehensive  plans  formulated  for  use  in  time  of  war  or 
emergency.  There  is  an  invariable  confusion  and  great  in- 
crease in  cost  of  supplies  whenever  a  national  emergency  arises 
for  use  of  the  fleet.  Plans  are  being  made  to  so  handle  such 
situations  that  a  reasonable  expansion  of  its  contracts  without 
an  increase  in  unit  price  can  readily  be  effected  at  any  time, 
as  a  normal  business  transaction. 

The  expenditures  for  the  Naval  establishment  for  1915  aggre- 
gated $142,959,092.11,  summarized  briefly  as  follows: 

New  ships $31,990,664.22 

Maintenance  and  operation  of  the  fleet 55,324,768 . 68 

Additions  to  shore  stations  plants 7,191,804.26 

Maintenance  of  shore  stations 17,117,549.56 

Marine  Corps 6,417,980.87 

Miscellaneous 24,916,324.52 

The  property  investment  of  the  Naval  establishment  is 
$858,391,884.58 . 

The  total  expenditure  of  the  Navy  from  1794  to  1915  is 
$3,214,339,051.10. 

The  accompanying  tabulated  statement  will  show  the  opera- 
tions of  the  supply  departments  at  the  principal  navy  yards 
and  stations  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1915,  which 
indicates  to  a  certain  extent  the  scope  of  the  operations  coming 
under  the  direction  of  the  Paymaster  General  of  the  Navy  and 
affords  the  American  people  an  object  lesson  of  the  variety 
and  extent  of  annual  appropriations  necessary  for  the  upkeep 
of  our  navy  yard  and  Navy. 


268  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


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BUREAU  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  ACCOUNTS       271 


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BUREAU  OF  SUPPLIES  AND  ACCOUNTS   273 


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CHAPTER  XXXV 
THE  BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 

THE  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  is  administered  by  the 
Chief  of  the  Bureau,  Surgeon  General  William  C.  Braisted. 
The  law  provides  for  an  Assistant  to  the  Chief  who  acts  as 
the  executive,  coordinating  the  entire  organization  and  work  of 
the  Bureau  under  the  supervision  of  the  Surgeon  General,  and 
who  acts  as  Chief  of  Bureau  in  the  temporary  absence  of  the 
Surgeon  General. 

The  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  is  charged  with  the 
upkeep  and  operation  of  all  hospitals  and  of  the  force  employed 
there.  It  furnishes  advice  with  respect  to  all  questions  con- 
nected with  hygiene  and  sanitation  affecting  the  service,  and, 
to  this  end,  is  granted  opportunity  for  necessary  inspection. 
It  provides  for  all  physical  examinations.  It  passes  upon 
the  competency,  from  a  professional  standpoint,  of  all  men  in 
the  Hospital  Corps  for  enlistments  and  promotions,  on  forms. 
It  keeps  the  record,  and  advises  as  to  the  assignment  and  duties 
of  all  enlisted  men  of  the  Hospital  Corps.  It  recommends 
to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  the  complement  of  medical  officers, 
dental  officers,  and  Hospital  Corps  for  hospital  ships,  and  has 
the  power  to  appoint  and  remove  all  nurses  in  the  Nurse  Corps 
of  the  Navy. 

Excepted  as  otherwise  provided  for,  the  duties  of  the  Bureau 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery  include  the  upkeep  and  operation  of 
Medical  Supply  Depots,  Medical  Laboratories,  Naval  Hospitals, 
Dispensaries,  Technical  Schools  for  the  Medical  and  Hospital 
Corps,  and  the  administration  of  the  Nurse  Corps,  Dental 
Corps,  and  Medical  Reserve  Corps. 

274 


BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY       275 

It  approves  the  design  of  hospital  ships  in  so  far  as  relates 
to  their  efficiency  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

It  approves  all  requisitions  for  purchase  of  Medical  Depart- 
ment supplies,  including  medicines  and  instruments  used  in  the 
Medical  Department  of  the  Navy,  and  has  control  of  the  prepar- 
ation, reception,  stowage,  care,  custody,  transfer,  and  issues  of 
all  supplies  of  every  kind  used  in  the  Medical  Department  for 
its  own  purposes. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  is  divided  into  four  main  subdivisions. 
First,  the  clerical  and  financial  division,  which  has  to  do  with 
finance,  correspondence,  the  clerical  force,  file,  supplies,  requisi- 
tions, and  public  bills.  Second,  the  division  of  personnel,  which 
has  to  do  with  the  Medical  Corps,  Medical  Reserve  Corps, 
Dental  Corps,  Hospital  Corps,  and  Nurse  Corps.  Third,  the 
division  of  records  and  pensions,  which  has  to  do  with  the 
physical  qualifications  of  candidates  for  enlistment,  appoint- 
ment and  promotion,  medical  surveys,  health  records,  pensions, 
records  for  promotion  and  retirement,  and  vital  statistics. 
Fourth,  division  of  publications,  which  has  to  do  with  the 
report  of  the  Surgeon  General,  the  Naval  Medical  Bulletin  and 
various  other  publications  issued  by  the  Bureau,  problems  of 
construction  and  sanitary  features  of  ships  and  stations. 

The  Medical  Corps  of  the  Navy  as  at  present  allowed  by  law 
consists  of  15  Medical  Directors  with  the  rank  of  Captain,  15 
Medical  Inspectors  with  the  rank  of  Commander,85  Surgeons  with 
the  rank  of  Lieutenant-Commander,  and230  Passed  Assistant  Sur- 
geons and  Assistant  Surgeons  who  have  the  rank,  respectively, 
of  Lieutenant  and  Lieutenant  (junior  grade).  In  addition  to 
the  above  corps  there  is  authority  of  law  to  employ  25  Acting 
Assistant  Surgeons  with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant  (junior  grade). 

The  Medical  Reserve  Corps  of  the  Navy  consists  in  time  of 
peace  of  not  more  than  300  medical  officers  not  candidates  for 
the  Medical  Corps,  and  exclusive  of  those  not  subject  to  call  for 
duty  under  the  terms  of  the  law.  Officers  accepting  a  commission 
in  this  corps  are  expected  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to  per- 


276  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

form  active  duty  in  the  Navy  when  called  upon,  at  any  time  dur- 
ing a  period  of  at  least  five  years  from  the  date  of  appointment. 

The  Dental  Corps  of  the  Navy  consists  of  thirty  Assistant 
Dental  Surgeons  with  the  rank  of  Lieutenant  (junior  grade). 
In  addition  there  is  an  officer,  a  Dental  Surgeon  with  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant  (junior  grade),  allowed  for  duty  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy. There  is  also  provision  of  law  for  temporary  appointment 
of  dental  officers  not  to  exceed  1  for  each  1,500  of  the  authorized 
enlisted  strength  of  the  Navy  and  the  Marine  Corps.  A  Dental 
Reserve  Corps  for  the  Navy  is  provided  along  the  same  lines  as 
the  Medical  Reserve  Corps. 

The  Hospital  Corps  of  the  Navy  consists  of  twenty-five  Phar- 
macists classed  as  warrant  officers,  and  of  Hospital  Stewards, 
Hospital  Apprentices  (first  class),  and  Hospital  Apprentices. 
This  corps  at  the  present  time  numbers  about  1,600  persons  dis- 
tributed in  the  above  mentioned  grades. 

The  Nurse  Corps  of  the  Navy  consists  of  a  Superintendent, 
and  of  as  many  Chief  Nurses,  Nurses,  and  Reserve  Nurses,  as 
may  be  needed. 

The  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  publishes  a  quarterly 
bulletin  known  as  the  United  States  Naval  Bulletin  which 
contemplates  the  timely  distribution  of  such  information  as  is 
deemed  of  value  to  medical  officers  and  Hospital  Corps  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties,  and  with  the  ultimate  object  that 
both  shall  continue  to  advance  in  proficiency  in  respect  to  all 
their  responsibilities.  In  addition  to  this  quarterly  the  Bureau 
has  prepared  and  revised  from  time  to  time  manuals,  compends, 
supply  tables,  and  drill  books  for  the  use  of  medical  officers  and 
of  the  Hospital  Corps.  The  more  important  being,  (a)  the 
Manual  for  the  Medical  Department  of  the  United  States 
Navy;  (b)  Handy  Book  for  the  Hospital  Corps,  United  States 
Navy;  (c)  Drill  Book  for  the  Hospital  Corps;  (d)  Medical 
Compend  for  Masters  of  the  Naval  Auxiliary  Service  (Medicine 
Box  United  States  Navy).  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Surgeon 
General  is  an  annual  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  cover- 


BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY       277 

ing  the  activities  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  for  the 
preceding  fiscal  year,  and  the  statistics  of  health  of  the  Navy 
and  Marine  Corps  for  the  preceding  calendar  year.  It  is  pub- 
lished as  a  part  of  the  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and 
also  as  a  separate  document. 

During  the  year  of  1915  the  death  rate  for  the  Navy  continued 
very  low,  only  4.18  per  1,000,  and  the  admission  rate  was  lower 
than  for  the  10-year  period  from  1901  to  1910,  inclusive.  Con- 
sidering that  these  statistics  include  the  time  of  the  Vera  Cruz 
campaign,  during  which  a  large  portion  of  the  personnel  was 
occupied  in  tropical  duty  for  more  than  seven  months,  it  is 
believed  that  the  result  is  fully  as  satisfactory,  and  of  as  high  a 
standard  as  that  of  the  preceding  several  years. 

Typhoid  fever  has,  within  the  last  three  or  four  years,  become 
an  almost  negligible  quantity  to  the  Naval  Service.  In  1911 
there  were  222  cases,  constituting  an  admission  rate  of  3.61  per 
1,000.  Of  these  222  cases  .15  died  and  the  total  number  of  sick 
days  credited  to  typhoid  fever  was  14.024.  In  the  year  of  1914 
there  were  only  13  cases  of  typhoid  representing  an  admission 
rate  of  .19,  there  being  no  deaths  and  only  1,027  sick  days. 
The  Surgeon  General  in  his  report  says:  "We  seem  to  be  seeing 
in  the  developments  of  the  past  few  years  the  passing  or  the 
temporary  subsidence  of  a  disease  as  a  world  menace,  such  as 
has  happened  in  past  epochs  to  typhus,  smallpox,  diptheria, 
scurvy,  and  other  diseases.  But  as  with  these  examples,  which 
are  still  constantly  with  us,  a  neglect  of  the  precautions  which 
have  produced  the  happy  result  would  undoubtedly  presage  a 
return  to  previous  conditions.  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  saying 
that  the  practical  elimination  of  typhoid  from  the  Navy  is  due 
almost  in  toto  to  prophylactic  inoculation.  While  the  reduc- 
tion in  morbidity  has  been  coincident  with  a  marked  improve- 
ment along  the  same  lines  in  the  civil  population  of  the  largest 
cities  of  the  United  States,  which  cannot  be  ascribed  to  immun- 
izing methods,  the  improvement  of  our  service  has  far  outpaced 
that  ashore.  Undoubtedly  the  countrywide  education  regard- 


278  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

ing  sanitary  principles,  as  disposal  of  waste,  improvement  of 
water  supply,  more  extensive  pasteurization  of  milk,  anti-fly 
campaigns,  etc.,  have  been  most  potent  in  producing  the  results 
cited  in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association." 

The  tuberculosis  rate  in  the  Navy  has  dropped  from  an  ad- 
mission rate  of  5.98  per  1,000  in  1910  to  4.39  per  1,000  in  1914. 
The  close  association  of  1,000  men  inside  the  steel  walls  of  their 
floating  home,  the  relative  lack  of  air,  of  sunshine,  of  space, 
renders  the  presence  of  an  early,  undetected  carrier  highly 
dangerous.  The  Navy  maintains  a  special  hospital  for  the  treat- 
ment of  tuberculosis  at  Las  Animas,  Colo. 

The  sanitary  problems  which  confront  the  Navy  are  of  a 
unique  character,  and  have  to  do  largely  with  questions  of 
hygiene  and  sanitation  aboard  ships  of  the  Navy.  The  air 
conditions  of  living  rooms  or  living  spaces,  engine  rooms,  fire 
rooms,  aboard  submarines,  and  in  connection  with  deep  diving, 
are  samples  of  the  problems  confronting  the  Medical  Corps. 
The  latest  design  of  battleship  provides  recreation  ground  and  a 
larger  per  capita  air  space.  Certain  scientific  problems  have 
engaged  the  interest  of  the  Bureau  during  the  past  year  and  the 
medical  officers  who  have  had  opportunity  have  contributed 
to  an  advancement  of  the  understanding  and  solution  of  these 
problems.  One  of  the  medical  officers,  P.  A.  Surgeon  French, 
U.  S.  N.,  a  member  of  the  board  for  the  investigation  of  deep  div- 
ing, submitted  interesting  observations  which  have  been  printed 
in  the  Naval  Medical  Bulletin.  The  work  done  by  this  board 
has  made  it  possible  to  accomplish  the  deepest  dives  that  have 
been  made  in  the  history  of  deep  diving,  in  connection  with  the 
salvage  of  the  submarine  F-4.  During  the  year  several  medical 
officers  have  continued  their  interest  in  the  subject  of  intelli- 
gence tests,  and  in  April,  1915,  a  symposium  by  Passed  Assistant 
Surgeons  Sheehan  and  Jenkins,  and  Acting  Assistant  Surgeon 
Schier  was  published  in  the  Naval  Medical  Bulletin,  Their 
investigations  have  added  to  the  scientific  progress  of  this 
subject.  During  the  same  year  medical  officers  have  continued 


BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY       279 

their  interest  in  the  hygiene  of  submarines,  and  valuable  ma- 
terial has  not  only  been  collected  with  regard  to  deleterious 
gases,  air  supply,  and  purification,  but  also  in  connection  with 
the  hygiene  of  the  personnel.  Naval  medical  officers  have 
undertaken  an  extensive  study  of  the  subject  of  aviation,  not 
only  as  affects  the  physical  qualifications  of  fliers,  but  also  with 
regard  to  those  mysterious  and  unexplainable  mental  conditions, 
and  even  loss  of  consciousness,  which  are  reported  from  some 
sources,  and  which  seem  to  have  a  bearing  on  accidents  not 
otherwise  explained. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  seventeen  hospitals  in  commis- 
sion and  under  the  administration  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery.  These  hospitals  contain  the  latest  and  the  most 
advanced  scientific  equipment.  The  largest  hospital,  of  about 
500  beds,  is  situated  at  Norfolk,  Va.  This  hospital  was  begun 
in  1827  and  has  been  added  to  from  time  to  time,  and  is  situ- 
ated in  a  reservation  comprising  eighty  acres,  the  site  of  old 
Fort  Nelson.  In  addition  to  the  seventeen  hospitals  enumerated 
above  there  are  certain  hospitals  now  under  construction  as 
for  instance  the  hospital  at  the  Naval  Station,  Hawaii,  and 
hospitals  temporarily  out  of  commission,  as  the  Naval  Hospital 
at  Pensacola,  Fla. 

In  addition  to  the  Naval  hospitals  on  shore,  hospital  service 
with  the  fleet  is  furnished  by  hospital  ships.  The  Hospital 
Ship  Relief,  formerly  a  hospital  ship  of  the  Army,  was  placed  in 
service  in  1908  on  the  occasion  of  the  cruise  around  the  world 
of  the  American  Fleet.  She  accompanied  the  Fleet  as  far  as 
the  Philippines,  but  due  to  her  unseaworthiness  has  not  been 
brought  home  from  these  islands,  and  is  now  used  as  a  floating 
hospital  at  the  Naval  Station,  Olongapo.  The  Hospital  Ship 
Solace,  has  been  hi  service  with  the  Fleet  since  1909.  This  ship 
is  probably  one  of  the  best-equipped  hospital  ships  of  modern 
times.  The  ship  is  commanded  by  a  medical  officer  of  the 
Navy  and  the  professional  complement  consists  of  six  medical 
officers,  a  pharmacist,  and  52  hospital  corpsmen.  The  com- 


280  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

plement  from  the  Naval  Auxiliary  Service  comprises  about  11 
officers  and  71  men.  The  building  program  for  1917  contains 
provision  for  a  hospital  ship,  which  will  be  the  first  hospital 
ship  constructed  as  such  from  the  keel  up. 

This  Bureau  maintains  four  technical  schools;  the  Naval 
Medical  School  at  Washington,  D.  C.;  the  Hospital  Corps 
Training  School  at  Newport,  R.  L;  the  Hospital  Corps  Training 
School  at  Yerba  Buena,  Calif.,  and  the  Correspondence  School 
for  Medical  Reserve  Corps  officers,  and  officers  of  the  Naval 
Militia,  located  at  Washington,  D.  C.  The  Naval  Medical 
School  was  established  May  27,  1902,  by  Surgeon  General 
Rixey.  Its  primary  object  is  the  training  of  recently  appointed 
medical  officers  in  those  branches  of  medical  science  which  are 
peculiar  to  naval  requirements,  or  which  are  of  unusual  im- 
portance because  of  naval  conditions.  It  also  maintains 
laboratories  for  bacteriology,  pathology,  and  chemistry,  for 
research  and  diagnosis,  as  well  as  for  instruction,  and  there  are 
important  pathological  and  helminthological  collections  con- 
taining specimens  contributed  by  medical  officers  and  others 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  A  reference  library  is  connected 
with  the  school  for  the  use  of  the  student  officers,  and  this  is  also 
utilized  as  a  source  from  which  medical  officers  of  the  service 
may  draw  medical  books  and  periodicals  for  temporary  use. 
The  faculty  consists  of  medical  officers  of  the  Navy  detailed 
for  that  purpose,  aided  by  various  specialists  who  give  lectures 
or  courses  in  their  specialties.  Instruction  is  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  naval  and  general  hygiene,  naval  and  operative 
surgery,  tropical  medicine,  pathology,  medical  zoology,  bac- 
teriology, aerology,  ophthalmology,  chemistry,  psychiatry, 
radiology,  and  electro-therapeutics,  hospital  corps  drills,  duties 
of  medical  officers,  and  such  other  subjects  as  may  be  feasible, 
including  naval  law  and  regulations,  and  quarantine.  Several 
of  the  instructors  are  widely  known  throughout  the  naval  world 
by  the  high  class  of  their  text  books  on  such  subjects  as  naval 
hygiene,  tropical  medicine,  etc. 


BUREAU  OF  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY       281 

The  Hospital  Corps  Training  School  at  the  Naval  Training 
Station,  Narragansett  Bay,  R.  I.,  and  at  the  Naval  Training 
Station,  Yerba  Buena,  Calif.,  were  established  by  Surgeon 
General  Braisted,  the  object  being  to  furnish  preliminary  train- 
ing to  newly  enlisted  men  of  the  Hospital  Corps.  The  branches 
taught  at  these  schools  are  as  follows:  anatomy,  physiology, 
first  aid  and  emergency  surgery,  nursing,  hygiene  and  sanitation, 
clerical  duties,  pharmacy,  chemistry,  materia  medica,  toxi- 
cology, dietetics,  litter  and  stretcher  drills,  and  academic  sub- 
jects. A  textbook,  "  The  Handy  Book  for  the  Hospital  Corps," 
has  been  prepared  and  published  to  facilitate  the  teaching. 

The  correspondence  course  for  medical  officers  of  the  Medical 
Reserve  Corps  was  established  with  a  view  to  giving  elementary 
instruction  with  regard  to  their  duties  in  time  of  war  or  other 
emergency. 

In  addition  to  the  duties  in  connection  with  the  naval  es- 
tablishment, considerable  work  in  connection  with  the  physical 
examination  of  some  20,000  civilian  employees  under  the  Civil 
Service  Commission  has  gradually  devolved  upon  naval  medical 
officers,  as  has  likewise  duties  in  connection  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Employees  Liability  Act,  administered  by  the 
Department  of  Labor. 

The  Bureau  has  a  unique  function  in  Guam,  where  there  are 
no  medical  practitioners  among  the  12,000  native  inhabitants. 
An  insular  health  department  is  maintained  at  the  capital  town 
of  Agana  by  the  senior  medical  officer  present,  whose  assistants 
exercise  the  duties  of  deputies,  under  the  appointment  of  the 
Governor,  who  is  an  officer  of  the  Navy.  At  Tutuila,  Samoa, 
the  Bureau  has  a  similar  problem  in  connection  with  the  natives 
of  this  insular  possession.  At  both  places  members  of  the  Nurse 
Corps  are  assigned  duties  in  connection  with  the  instruction 
of  native  women  in  matters  of  hygiene,  nursing,  and  sanitation, 
in  addition  to  the  elementary  school  branches.  These  native 
women  in  turn  go  back  to  their  villages  carrying  with  them  ideas 
of  better  living  and  a  solicitude  for  good  health. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 


THE  NAVAL  MILITIA 

THE  first  Naval  Militia  organization  in  the 
United  States  was  established  in  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  as  a  part  of  the  organized  Mili- 
tia on  March  29,  1890.  Other  seacoast  and 
lake  states  followed.  There  are  now  Naval 
Militia  organizations  in  twenty-two  states,  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  Hawaiian  Islands : 

STRENGTH  OF  THE  NAVAL  MILITIA,  APK.  i,  1916. 


STATE 

OFFICERS 
64 

ENLISTED  MEN 
823 

TOTAL 

887 

a  Connecticut      
3  District  of  Columbia  .... 

ai 
13 
19 

328 
198 
3O7 

349 
an 
326 

36 

571 

607 

6  Louisiana    

*         *s 

3OI 

326 

10 

I4< 

151 

32 

196 

218 

g  Massachusetts       
10  Michigan    

S3 

38 

808 
444 

861 
482 

27 

413 

439 

17 

308 

225 

13  New  Jersey       

28 

387 

415 

14  New  York  

88 

1,390 

1,478 

15  North  Carolina      .     .     .     . 

ig 

193 

212 

16  Ohio       

32 

273 

295 

10 

184 

104 

18  Pennsylvania    
19  Rhode  Island     

16 
ir 

147 
186 

163 
197 

ao  South  Carolina      

30 

191 

an 

21  Texas                

5 

IOI 

106 

at  Washington      

13 

313 

336 

33  Hawaii  

i 

(Now  being  organized) 

i 

Total     

578 

8,102 

8,680 

In  1891  there  was  included  in  the  Naval  Militia  Act,  as  passed 
by  Congress,  an  appropriation  of  $25,000  for  "Arming  and 
Equipping  Naval  Militia."  This  constituted  the  first  Federal 

282 


THE  NAVAL  MILITIA  283 

appropriation  available  for  the  purchase  of  arms,  equipment, 
etc.  Appropriations  have  been  included  annually  in  the  Naval 
Act  since  that  time,  the  amount  appropriated  for  1915  being 
$250,000. 

Ships  were  loaned  to  the  organizations  and  material  and 
equipment  issued  by  the  various  bureaus  of  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment for  training  purposes,  the  details  being  carried  on  by  the 
"Office  of  Naval  Militia."  The  states  themselves  purchased 
clothing  and  equipment.  Some  equipment  was  loaned  by  the 
War  Department.  Annual  practice  cruises  were  made,  and  the 
training  of  the  Naval  Militia  gradually  progressed. 

On  February  16,  1914,  "An  Act  to  Promote  the  Efficiency  of 
the  Naval  Militia  and  for  Other  Purposes,"  commonly  known 
as  the  "Naval  Militia  Act,"  became  a  law,  and  is  the  act  under 
which  the  naval  militia  is  now  operating.  In  accordance  with 
this  act,  the  Division  of  Naval  Militia  Affairs,  was  established 
on  April  12,  1914,  by  taking  over  all  work  formerly  performed 
by  the  "Office  of  Naval  Militia."  Capt.  F.  B.  Bassett,  United 
States  Navy,  is  Chief  of  this  Division.  The  control  of  the  Naval 
militia  is  to  a  large  extent  under  the  supervision  of  the  Navy 
Department.  An  organization  is  being  built  up  which  will  be 
of  great  benefit  to  the  Navy.  When  it  is  realized  that  a  large 
personnel  will  be  needed  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  Navy  in  time  of 
war,  and  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  by  the  terms  of  the  act 
the  naval  militia  or  any  existing  reserve  must  be  called  out 
before  volunteers,  constant  efficiency  in  the  Naval  Militia  is  of 
the  utmost  importance. 

A  National  Naval  Militia  Board,  composed  of  five  naval 
militia  officers,  representing  the  North  Atlantic,  South  Atlantic, 
Pacific,  and  Great  Lakes  regions,  convenes  in  Washington  as 
often  as  necessary,  and  is  freely  consulted  in  all  important  naval 
militia  matters. 

Inspections  of  all  naval  militia  organizations  and  divisions 
are  made  annually  by  officers  of  the  Navy,  to  determine  whether 
or  not  the  divisions  are  sufficiently  armed,  uniformed,  and 


284  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

equipped  to  participate  in  the  allotment  of  Federal  Funds  for  the 
ensuing  year.  The  first  of  these  inspections  was  made  in  the 
spring  of  1914,  and  as  a  result,  several  divisions  were  disbanded. 

A  board  of  naval  officers  has  formulated  examinations  for 
officers  and  enlisted  men,  and  is  standardizing,  in  accordance 
with  the  Naval  Militia  Act,  the  qualifications  of  the  naval 
militia  personnel.  This  board  met  in  Washington  and,  assisted 
by  the  National  Naval  Militia  Board,  formulated  a  report 
published  to  the  service  in  the  form  of  a  General  Order.  This 
General  Order  establishes  the  units  of  organization,  distribution 
of  personnel,  and  other  matters  which  in  accordance  with  the  act, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  authorized  to  prescribe. 

The  unit  of  organization  is  the  division  (battalion)  . 

Aeronautic  divisions  and  marine  sections  are  also  authorized. 

Brigade  and  Battalion  organizations  are  maintained  for 
administrative  and  other  purposes. 

The  personnel  consists  of  line  officers  for  line,  engineering, 
and  aeronautic  duty : 

1.  Medical  officers,  2—3—10 

2.  Pay  officers. 

3.  Chaplains. 

4.  Marine  officers. 

5.  Chief  boatswains  and  boatswains. 

6.  Chief  gunners  and  gunners. 

7.  Chief  machinists  and  machinists. 

8.  Chief  carpenters  and  carpenters. 

9.  Chief  pharmacists  and  pharmacists. 

10.  Chief  pay  clerks  and  pay  clerks. 

The  rate  of  chief  petty  officers,  petty  officers,  and  other 
enlisted  men  (naval  branch) ,  and  the  rank  of  non-commissioned 
officers  (marine  corps  branch)  are  allowed  the  naval -militia  with 
corresponding  pay  and  allowances  in  time  of  war. 

"Naval  Militia  Examining  Boards,"  sit  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
to  prepare  questions  and  mark  examination  papers  of  officers  of 
the  naval  militia  coming  up  for  examination. 


THE  NAVAL  MILITIA  285 

The  Navy  Department  has  established  standard  physical 
examinations  for  the  Naval  Militia.  The  adoption  and  com- 
pliance with  the  provisions  of  these  examinations,  by  all  states 
and  territories  is  a  requisite  in  order  that  the  Naval  Militia 
may  be  called  forth  in  time  of  war  without  further  professional 
examination. 

A  tactical  signal  book  for  use  in  instructing  the  Naval  Militia 
in  visual  signaling  and  falling  hi  with  other  naval  or  naval 
militia  vessels  has  been  prepared. 

An  "  Organization  Trophy  "  and  a  "  Division  Trophy,"  to  be 
competed  for  annually,  have  been  offered  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment for  the  organization  and  division  making  the  highest  score 
in  target  practice  during  the  year.  The  fiscal  year  1915  was 
the  first  year  during  which  these  trophies  were  competed  for. 
The  "Organization  Trophy"  was  won  by  Illinois,  and  the 
"Division  Trophy,"  by  the  First  Division,  Second  Battalion, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The  training  of  the  Naval  Militia  consists  in  armory  instruc- 
tion during  the  winter  months;  small-arms  target  practice,  short 
week-end  cruises  on  vessels  loaned  to  the  naval  militia  organ- 
izations, and  an  annual  cruise  of  about  fifteen  days'  duration  on 
vessels  of  the  Regular  Navy  and  vessels  loaned  to  the  organiza- 
tions. These  annual  cruises  of  fifteen  days  comprise  the  most 
important  feature  in  the  naval  militia  training  and  an  effort 
is  made  to  teach  both  officers  and  enlisted  men  the  elementary 
principles  of  life  on  board  ship,  and  to  put  into  actual  practice 
the  instruction  they  have  received  during  the  winter  months. 
While  performing  such  cruises  the  Naval  Militia  receive  the 
same  pay,  transportation,  and  subsistence  allowed  officers  and 
enlisted  men  of  the  Regular  Navy.  Officers  and  enlisted  men 
also  participate  in  target  practice  and  short  tours  of  duty  on 
vessels  of  the  fleet.  All  the  expenses  in  connection  with  these 
cruises  and  tours  of  duty  are  paid  from  the  naval  militia  appro- 
priations. Many  naval  militia  officers  have  been  able  to  take 
advantage  of  this  opportunity  to  perform  duty  hi  the  fleet. 


286  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


NAVAL   MILITIA   CRUISES 

The  1916  cruise  of  the  Naval  Militia  was  held  from  July  15th  to 
July  29th.  It  was  participated  in  by  members  of  all  Naval  Militia 
organizations  exceeding  2,000  men.  This  cruise  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  was  made  on  a  squadron  of  battleships  of  the  reserve  force, 
U.  S.  Atlantic  fleet,  composed  of  nine  battleships  under  the  com- 
mand of  Rear  Admiral  J.  M.  Helm,  U.  S.  N. 

The  vessels  were  boarded  at  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Norfolk.  The  vessels  rendezvoused  at  Block  Island  Sound 
and  cruised  in  squadron  until  time  to  reach  the  cities  at  which 
the  naval  militia  disembarked. 

This  is  the  first  time  the  naval  militia  has  performed  a  cruise  of 
this  nature.  These  nine  battleships  of  the  reserve  force,  U.  S. 
Atlantic  fleet  were  manned  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in  which 
they  would  be  manned  in  time  of  war.  Each  one  of  these  battle- 
ships was  in  command  of  an  officer  of  the  Regular  Navy  with  a 
limited  number  of  officers  of  the  Regular  Navy.  They  each  had  a 
crew  of  approximately  forty  per  cent,  of  enlisted  men  of  the  Reg- 
ular Navy,  the  remainder  of  the  crew,  both  officers  and  enlisted 
men,  to  form  full  complement,  being  made  up  by  the  Naval 
Militia. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  Naval  Militia  of  the  eastern,  south- 
ern, and  central  states  was  making  this  cruise,  part  of  the 
second  battalion,  New  York  Naval  Militia,  cruised  on  the  U.  S.  S. 
Gloucester;  part  of  the  Connecticut  Naval  Militia  on  the  U.  S.  S. 
Amphitrite;  part  of  the  Maryland  Naval  Militia  on  the  U.  S.  S. 
Montgomery;  part  of  the  Pennsylvania  Naval  Militia  and  second 
battalion,  New  Jersey  Naval  Militia,  on  the  U.  S.  S.  Chicago,  and 
part  of  the  first  battalion,  Michigan  Naval  Militia,  cruised  on  the 
U.  S.  S.  Don  Juan  De  Austria. 

The  aeronautic  section  of  the  first  and  second  battalions,  New 
York  Naval  Militia,  encamped  at  Bay  Shore,  L.  I. 

The  marine  companies  of  the  Illinois  Naval  Militia,  Louisiana 


THE  NAVAL  MILITIA  287 

Naval  Militia,  and  second  battalion,  New  York  Naval  Militia, 
went  into  camps  of  instruction. 

The  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  Naval  Militia  cruised 
on  the  Pacific  Coast.  On  this  cruise  the  first  battalion,  Cali- 
fornia Naval  Militia,  manned  the  Oregon;  the  Oregon  Naval 
Militia  manned  the  Marblehead,  and  the  Washington  Naval 
Militia  the  New  Orleans. 

The  vessels  of  this  squadron  rendezvoused  off  Port  Angeles, 
Washington,  and  then  proceeded  to  Sitka,  Alaska,  thus  afford- 
big  an  ideal  outing  and  cruise. 

The  Naval  Militia  Act  authorizes  the  assignment  of  Naval 
officers  and  enlisted  men  to  duty  as  inspector-instructors  of  the 
Naval  Militia.  Officers  have  been  assigned  to  many  organiza- 
tions or  divisions,  but,  except  in  a  few  cases,  this  has  been  in 
addition  to  the  officers'  regular  duties.  A  number  of  enlisted 
men  have  also  been  assigned  as  assistant  instructors.  To 
properly  instruct  the  Naval  Militia,  many  more  inspector- 
instructors,  both  officers  and  enlisted  men,  are  needed.  It  is 
planned  to  assign  officers  and  enlisted  men  to  all  organizations 
eventually. 

A  complete  library  of  text  books  has  been  issued  to  all 
divisions  and  to  inspector-instructors. 

A  limited  number  of  petty  officers  from  several  organizations 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  are  given  two  weeks  instruction  annually 
at  the  Marine  Corps  Rifle  Range,  Wirithrop,  Md. 

Aeronautic  sections  have  been  organized  and  steps  are  now 
being  taken  to  organize  several  more.  Several  aeroplanes  have 
been  presented  and  it  is  anticipated  that  an  efficient  aerial  re- 
serve will  be  built  up. 

It  is  proposed  to  carry  on  the  present  program  of  instruction 
and  training  and  to  endeavor  to  supply  all  organizations  with 
outfits  of  clothing  and  equipment  as  far  as  the  funds  available 
will  permit.  The  training  will  be  devoted  to  general  naval 
duties  and  to  preparing  the  Naval  Militia  so  that  they  may  be 
used  as  an  auxiliary  for  the  Navy  in  time  of  war,  and  may  be 


288  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

qualified  professionally  and  physically  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  Naval  Militia  Act. 

Detailed  information  concerning  the  Naval  Militia  can  be 
obtained  from  the  Division  of  Naval  Militia  Affairs,  Navy  De- 
partment, Washington,  D.  C.,  which  supplied  practically  all 
of  the  above  data. 


"Why  have  we  lagged  behind  in  all  modern  developments  of  armament,  am- 
munition, and  everything  that  goes  to  make  an  efficient  modern  fighting  force? 
We  had  the  inventors;  we  had  the  money;  we  have  the  men. 

"The  submarine  was  an  American  invention. 

"The  flying  machine  was  an  American  invention. 

"Holland,  the  inventor  of  the  submarine,  died  in  poverty.  Langley  was 
laughed  at  for  his  experiments  with  the  aeroplane,  and  his  death  was  probably 
hastened  by  the  ridicule  that  followed  his  brave  efforts  to  make  us  understand 
that  aerial  flight  was  feasible." — From  speech  made  by  Honorable  William  J. 
Gary,  of  Wisconsin,  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  Washington,  D.  C., 
December  16,  1915. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY 

THE  United  States  Naval  Academy  was 
founded  in  1845,  by  Hon.  Geo.  Bancroft,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  in  the  administration  of  Presi- 
dent Polk,  for  the  proper  training  and  education 
of  prospective  naval  officers.  It  was  then  called 
"The  Naval  School,"  and  the  students  "naval 
cadets";  the  present  name  "midshipmen"  dating 
from  1902.  The  course  was  for  five  years,  the  first  and  last 
year  being  spent  at  the  school  and  the  intervening  years  at  sea. 
The  course  now  is  four  years  at  the  Academy  with  summer 
cruises  during  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  years.  Fourth  class- 
men have  no  leave,  but  devote  the  summer  months  to  prelimi- 
nary instruction  in  professional  branches  and  to  drills,  such  as 
handling  boats  under  oars  and  sails,  and  in  seamanship,  gunnery, 
and  infantry  drills.  These  practical  exercises  form  excellent 
ground  work  for  the  academic  course.  The  1915  cruise  was 
made  on  three  battleships  and  extended  to  the  Panama  Ex- 
position and  return,  through  the  Panama  Canal  including  stops 
at  Guantanamo  Bay,  San  Diego,  Los  Angeles,  Long  Beach,  and 
two  weeks'  stay  at  the  Exposition.  The  1914  cruise  was  to  Eng- 
land and  the  Mediterranean.  The  1916  is  now  being  made  and 
extends  to  Guantanamo  Bay  and  then  to  Provincetown,  Mass., 
and  some  other  Atlantic  ports  it  being  impracticable  to  visit 
European  waters  on  account  of  the  war. 

The  pay  of  midshipmen  is  $600  per  year  with  an  additional 
allowance  of  thirty  cents  per  day  for  food.    The  pay  of  an  En- 

289 


290  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

sign  is  that  of  a  second  lieutenant  of  the  Army,  $1,700  per  year, 
with  quarters,  heat,  and  light  allowance. 

A  visit  to  the  magnificent  grounds  and  buildings  of  the  Naval 
Academy  which  represent  an  expenditure  of  over  $15,000,000 
cannot  fail  to  impress  Americans  with  the  spirit  of  the  institu- 
tion and  cause  them  to  urge  young  America  to  strive  for  its 
diploma  and  traditional  honors. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Severn  River,  where  stood  old  Fort 
Severn,  surrounded  by  the  old  estates  of  several  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  many  other  historic  land- 
marks, now  stands  this  patriotic  institution,  the  greatest  Naval 
asset  of  our  republic. 

As  at  West  Point,  there  is  no  class  or  religious  distinction 
shown,  the  life  of  the  students  being  extremely  simple  and 
democratic. 

Some  graduates  after  completing  the  required  eight  years 
of  service  resign  from  the  Navy  to  accept  positions  of  great  re- 
sponsibility in  civil  life. 

In  addition  to  being  educated  for  expert  seamanship  and 
naval  service,  midshipmen  are  also  schooled  in  the  science  of 
land  warfare.  Not  only  can  they  "box  the  compass,"  figure 
latitude  and  longitude  and  con  the  ship,  but  they  are  capable  of 
leading  a  platoon  of  infantry  or  handling  a  field  battery  as  readily 
as  the  barbette  or  the  turret  guns  of  their  warship. 

The  authorized  enrollment  has  recently  been  increased  to 
1,704  by  Act  of  Congress,  February  15, 1916.  This  act  provides 
that,  hereafter  the  corps  of  midshipmen  shall  consist  of  three 
midshipmen  for  each  Senator,  Representative,  and  Delegate 
in  Congress,  one  for  Porto  Rico,  two  for  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  ten  each  year  at  large,  and  fifteen  appointments  ann- 
ually from  the  enlisted  men  of  the  Navy. 

Owing  to  failures  and  unfilled  vacancies  the  actual  attendance 
seldom  exceeds  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  authorized  enroll- 
ment. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  sixteen  to  twenty  years 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY  291 

of  age.  The  remarks  relative  to  appointments  and  the  physical 
and  mental  examination  for  admission  to  the  Military  Academy 
(Chapter  21)  apply,  in  general,  to  the  Naval  Academy. 

The  examination  papers  are  prepared  at  the  Naval  Academy 
and  are  finally  passed  upon  by  the  Academic  Board.  Candi- 
dates must  be  unmarried  and  any  midshipman  who  shall  marry 
or  who  is  found  to  be  married,  before  his  final  graduation,  is  dis- 
missed from  the  service. 

A  sound  body  and  constitution,  suitable  preparation,  good 
natural  capacity,  an  aptitude  for  study,  industrious  habits, 
perseverance,  an  obedient  and  orderly  disposition  and  a  cor- 
rect moral  deportment  are  such  essential  qualifications  that 
candidates  knowingly  deficient  in  any  of  these  respects  should 
not,  as  many  do,  subject  themselves  and  their  friends  to  the 
chances  of  future  mortification  and  disappointment  by  accept- 
ing appointments  to  the  Naval  Academy  and  entering  on  a 
career  which  they  cannot  successfully  pursue. 

The  selection  of  candidates  by  competitive  examination  or 
otherwise,  for  nomination  from  any  congressional  district,  is 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  member  of  Congress  entitled  to  the 
appointment,  and  all  applications  for  appointments  or  inquiries 
relative  to  examinations  should  be  addressed  to  the  congressman 
representing  the  congressional  district  in  which  the  vacancy 
exists. 

Copies  of  the  entrance  regulations  showing  a  syllabus  of 
the  first  year's  work  at  the  Naval  Academy  and  specimen  ex- 
amination questions  may  be  obtained  on  application  to  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  Navy  Department,  Washington,  D.  C., 
or  to  the  Superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis, 
Md.  A  copy  of  each  of  these  publications  will  be  forwarded 
direct  to  each  candidate  in  order  that  he  may  spend  his  time 
profitably  at  his  local  school  and  be  better  prepared  to  pursue 
his  course  at  the  Academy  successfully. 

Occasionally  ensigns  are  commissioned  in  the  Marine  Corps 
or  in  certain  of  the  Staff  Corps  of  the  Navy.  Several  whose 


292  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

vision  barred  them  from  Naval  service  have  been  commissioned 
in  the  Coast  Artillery  Corps  of  the  Army.  Ensigns  after  two 
years  service  are  promoted  Lieutenants,  junior  grade. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  as  soon  as  possible  preceding  the 
graduation  of  midshipmen,  notifies  each  Senator,  Representa- 
tive, and  Delegate  in  Congress  of  any  vacancy  which  he  is  en- 
titled to  fill  by  nomination  of  a  candidate  and  one  or  more  alter- 
nates. 

In  May,  1861,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  the  Naval 
Academy  was  removed  to  Newport,  R.  I.  The  three  upper 
classes  were  detached  and  ordered  to  sea  and  the  remaining 
acting  midshipmen  were  quartered  in  the  Atlantic  House  and 
on  board  the  frigates  Constitution  and  Santee.  In  the  summer 
of  1865  the  Academy  was  brought  back  to  Annapolis. 

The  Bureau  of  Navigation  has  direction  of  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy under  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the  immediate  control 
and  supervision  being  vested  in  a  Superintendent  and  Academic 
Board,  composed  of  the  Superintendent,  the  Commandant  of 
Midshipmen,  and  the  heads  of  departments.  The  departments 
are — Executive,  Physical  Training,  Seamanship,  Ordnance 
and  Gunnery,  Navigation,  Marine  Engineering  and  Naval 
Construction,  Mathematics  and  Mechanics,  Electrical  Engin- 
eering and  Physics,  English,  Modern  Languages,  Naval  Hygiene 
and  Physiology. 

Post  graduate  courses  in  Ordnance  and  Engineering  are  main- 
tained at  the  Naval  Academy.  The  Ordnance  course  is  for 
one  year  at  the  Academy  and  one  year  of  practical  instruction 
at  the  Naval  Proving  Ground,  Indian  Head,  Md.,  the  Naval 
gun  factory  at  Washington,  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  Bethlehem 
Steel  Co.,  and  the  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.  The  Engineer- 
ing course  is  for  two  years,  the  first  year  at  the  Academy  and 
the  second  at  Columbia  University,  and  includes  steam  and 
mechanical  engineering,  electrical  engineering,  and  radio  en- 
gineering. 

A  model  dairy  is  maintained  about  ten  miles  from  the  Acad- 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY  293 

emy  under  the  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Department  of  Agriculture.  It  supplies  250  gallons  of  milk 
daily.  To  this  item  of  food  is  attributed,  in  great  measure,  the 
improved  physique  of  the  entrance  class  during  the  summer. 
They  have  four  times  the  usual  milk  ration  while  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  class  are  cruising.  The  gain  in  weight  of  each 
member  averages  about  nine  pounds  during  this  period. 

Close  attention  is  paid  to  athletic  instruction  and  physical 
training,  all  kinds  of  indoor  and  outdoor  sports  being  indulged  in. 
To  those  who  excel  in  the  various  events  the  traditional  yellow 
"N"  and  class  numerals  are  awarded.  The  baseball  and  foot- 
ball schedules  include  a  series  of  games  with  all  nearby  colleges, 
the  culminating  games  being  with  the  Military  Academy. 

The  following  annual  prizes  are  awarded  for  excellence  in 
scholarship,  military  drills,  and  athletics: 

The  Class  of  '71  prize  consists  of  a  Navy  dress  sword  and  knot 
awarded  "that  midshipman  of  each  graduating  class  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  who  has  completed  the  pre- 
scribed course,- and  who  shall  be  considered  by  the  Superintend- 
ent, the  Commandant  of  Midshipmen  and  the  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  ordnance  and  gunnery  as  the  most  proficient  in 
practical  and  theoretical  ordnance  and  gunnery." 

General  Excellence  in  Individual  Target  Practice:  Gold,  sil- 
ver, and  bronze  medals,  and  sharpshooter's  medals. 

Sons  of  the  Revolution  Trophy:  Name  of  midshipmen  to  be 
inscribed  thereon  each  year  who  attains  highest  proficiency  in 
great  gun  target  practice  or  in  practical  ordnance  and  gunnery. 

Lysistrate  cup  race;  between  the  midshipmen  crews  of  battle- 
ships. 

D.  A.  R.  cup;  for  excellence  in  seamanship  and  international  law. 

The  Navigating  Sextant;  by  Col.  Robert  M.  Thompson  for 
excellence  in  practical  and  theoretical  navigation. 

Medal  presented  by  the  Admiral  Trenchard,  Section  No.  73 
Navy  League,  for  the  best  original  essay  on  a  naval  or  patriotic 
topic. 


294  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Navy  Athletic  Association  cup,  awarded  to  the  company 
winning  the  greatest  number  of  points  in  athletics. 

A  sword,  for  general  excellence  in  athletics. 

The  Thompson  trophy  cup;  the  name  of  the  midshipman  to 
be  inscribed  thereon,  declared  by  the  executive  committee, 
Navy  Athletic  Association,  to  have  done  most  for  the  promo- 
tion of  athletics  during  the  year. 

The  regimental  flag,  awarded  to  the  company  having  scored 
the  greatest  number  of  points  in  official  drills  during  the  year. 

A  gold  and  eight  bronze  medals  are  awarded  by  the  Navaf 
Athletic  Association  for  excellence  in  gymnastics. 

Prizes  are  awarded  in  tennis,  soccer,  sailing,  and  track  events. 

The  cruiser  Reina  Mercedes,  captured  from  Spain  in  1898,  is 
maintained  at  Annapolis  as  a  station  and  discipline  ship. 

Hazing  is  forbidden  by  statute  and  is  defined  as  consisting 
of  "any  unauthorized  assumption  of  authority  by  one  midship- 
man over  another  midshipman  whereby  the  last  mentioned 
midshipman  shall  or  may  suffer  or  be  exposed  to  suffer  any 
cruelty,  indignity,  humiliation,  hardship  or  oppression,  or  the 
deprivation  or  abridgement  of  any  right,  privilege  or  advantage 
to  which  he  shall  be  legally  entitled." 

Graduation  Week  is  known  as  June  Week,  being  the  first 
week  in  June  and  ending  on  Friday  night.  The  Board  of  Visi- 
tors consisting  of  seven  United  States  Senators  and  seven  Repre- 
sentatives, with  a  naval  officer  as  secretary,  are  in  session  at  the 
Naval  Academy  during  June  Week.  All  exercises  and  schedules 
conform  to  the  wishes  of  this  board.  It  is  the  custom  to  hold 
the  June  ball  tendered  the  graduates  by  the  undergraduates 
on  Wednesday  evening  at  which  the  graduates  appear  in  their 
new  uniforms  as  ensigns.  Graduation  exercises  are  held 
Friday  morning  at  which  time  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  or  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  presents  the  diplomas. 
On  Saturday  morning  each  undergraduate  packs  his  bag  and 
hammock  and  goes  aboard  one  of  the  battleships  assigned 
for  the  summer  cruise.  They  return  from  this  cruise  the  last 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY  295 

week  in  August  and  move  back  to  quarters  and  then  depart 
for  a  month's  leave  during  September,  for  which,  by  economy, 
sufficient  funds  may  be  saved. 

The  attendance  in  Washington  by  the  Corps  of  Midshipmen 
upon  the  inauguration  of  a  President  of  the  United  States  is 
traditional. 

The  total  number  of  graduates  from  the  Naval  Academy, 
including  the  class  of  1916,  is  4,630. 


"This  country  has  to  contend  now,  and  has  had  to  contend  in  the  past,  with 
many  evils,  and  there  is  ample  scope  for  all  who  would  work  for  reform.  But 
there  is  not  one  evil  that  now  exists,  or  that  ever  has  existed  in  this  country, 
which  is,  or  ever  has  been,  owing  in  the  smallest  part  to  militarism.  Declama- 
tion against  militarism  has  no  more  serious  place  in  an  earnest  and  intelligent 
movement  for  righteousness  in  this  country  than  declamation  against  the  wor- 
ship of  Baal  or  Ashtaroth.  It  is  declamation  against  a  non-existent  evil,  one 
which  never  has  existed  in  this  country,  and  which  has  not  the  slightest  chance  of 
appearing  here." — Theodore  Roosevelt. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
WARSHIPS 

THE  World  Powers  are  those  maritime  nations  which  main- 
tain large  navies  as  well  as  large  armies,  for  the  proper  protec- 
tion of  then*  coast  lines  and  seaports,  to  repel  invasions,  to 
safeguard  the  national  peace  and  protect  its  foreign  commerce 
and  foreign  policies.  Their  respective  navies  constitute  their 
first  line  of  defense  and  offense.  These  navies  are,  therefore, 
designed  to  outfight,  if  possible,  those  of  their  prospective  ene- 
mies, should  questions  of  dispute  arise  which  diplomacy  cannot 
adjust. 

A  nation's  wealth,  population,  resources,  commerce,  seaports, 
foreign  policies,  seacoast,  and  natural  barriers  are  the  dominating 
factors  in  determining  the  question  of  adequate  military  and 
naval  power. 

In  a  populous,  resourceful  republic,  such  as  ours,  exceeding 
in  wealth,  seacoast,  number  of  seaports  and  foreign  commerce 
each  of  its  prospective  enemies,  its  Navy  must  be  limited  in  size 
and  power  only  by  a  reasonable  ratio  of  its  revenues  annually 
expended  for  naval  defense  augmented  by  such  additional  ex- 
penditure as  the  exigencies  of  the  times  merit. 

Our  most  powerful  rivals  are  England,  Germany,  France,  and 
Japan. 

The  trend  of  naval  development  by  these  powers  is  in  favor  of 
speed,  range,  and  rapidity  of  gun  fire,  armor  protection  and  cruis- 
ing radius.  This  is  best  reflected  in  the  enormous  increase  in 
displacement  in  type-ships  during  the  past  twenty  years.  Dis- 
placement (tonnage)  has  become  the  simplest  and  most  common 

296 


WARSHIPS 


297 


means  of  comparison  of  the  naval  strength  of  various  powers. 
In  this  respect  the  United  States  Navy,  at  present,  ranks  prob- 
ably in  fifth  or  sixth  place. 

The  enormous  increase  in  displacement  due  to  increase  in 
speed,  through  engine  horsepower,  is  graphically  indicated. 
Through  courtesy  of  Major  J.  W.  Gulick,  Coast  Artillery 


30000 


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298  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Corps,  this  and  other  diagrams  and  data  are  reproduced  from 
"  Ships  and  Armor." 

Whereas,  a  speed  of  ten  knots  can  be  obtained  with  4,000  horse- 
power and  fifteen  knots  with  6,000  horsepower,  a  speed  of 
twenty  knots  requires  15,000  horsepower,  and  twenty-four  knots 
31,500  horsepower. 

The  only  hope  of  reaching  a  limit  in  naval  construction  lies  in 
the  possibility  of  an  international  tribunal  to  settle  international 
disputes  and  with  an  international  navy  to  enforce  its  edicts. 
Until  that  day,  and  to  hasten  that  day,  it  behooves  the  United 
States  to  maintain  a  most  liberal  policy  of  naval  expansion.  The 
English  navy  to-day  comprises  over  3,000  vessels  of  various 
types  or  about  ten  times  the  number  in  the  United  States  Navy. 

'For  the  brief  consideration  possible  in  this  volume  of  types  of 
U.  S.  Naval  ships,  the  Navy  department  classification  into  first, 
second,  third,  fourth  rate  ships  and  auxiliary  ships  is  followed. 

First  rates  exceed  8,000  tons  and  second  rates  4,000  tons  dis- 
placement. This  comprises  our  battleships  and  cruisers  of 
various  types.  The  United  States  will  have  no  battle  cruisers 
before  1918  or  1919,  the  first  six  such  types  having  been  author- 
ized by  Congress  in  August,  1916. 

Battle  cruisers  are  designed  to  out-maneuver  the  most  power- 
ful battleships  of  to-day.  Armor  protection  is  sacrificed  in 
favor  of  speed  and  armament  in  hopes  that  by  this  increase  of 
speed  and  gun  power  such  battleships  can  be  overtaken  and  de- 
stroyed. In  1914,  Japan  had  two  battle  cruisers,  Germany  four, 
England  nine. 

Our  battleships  are  of  large  size,  heaviest  armament,  thickest 
armor,  moderately  high  speed  (eighteen  to  twenty-one  knots) 
and  coal  capacity.  Designed  to  fight  any  ship  but  limited  in 
radius  of  action. 

Our  Armored  Cruisers  are  of  large  size  and  displacement. 
Less  armor  protection  and  freeboard  than  battleships.  Speed 
about  same  as  present  day  battleships  i.  e.,  22  knots  and  great 
coal  capacity  and  radius  of  action. 


WARSHIPS 


299 


Cross  sectional  views  of  a  first-class  battleship 


300  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Our  Scout  Cruisers  are  the  eyes  of  the  Fleet  Commander. 
Limited  armor  protection  and  armament,  smaller  size,  greater 
speed.  Not  capable  of  engaging  battleships  or  cruisers. 

Reports  indicate  that  coincident  with  the  action  of  our  Con- 
gress in  authorizing  Battle  Cruisers  in  1916,  to  cope  with  those 
long  since  a  part  of  foreign  navies,  England  is  constructing  a 
superdreadnaught-destroyer  or  battle-cruiser-destroyer,  800  feet 
long,  and  a  speed  of  thirty-one  knots.  It  will  probably  be  in 
commission  ahead  of  our  first  battle  cruiser. 

The  length  used  in  stating  a  ship's  dimensions  is  the  length  on 
the  load  water  line  including  the  overhang  of  the  stern. 

The  breadth  is  the  width  of  the  hull  at  the  broadest  part. 

Displacement  is  expressed  in  tons,  and  is  the  total  designed 
weight  including  the  weight  of  hull,  machinery,  armor,  water, 
stores,  fuel,  armament,  etc. 

Draft  is  the  depth  of  water  measured  from  the  keel  or  bottom 
to  the  water  line  when  the  ship  is  in  commission  ready  for  service. 

The  United  States  has  kept  pace  in  the  construction  of  guns 
and  in  the  development  of  armor  plate,  projectiles,  and  powder, 
although  it  has  fallen  behind  from  two  to  five  knots  in  speed. 

The  battleship  California  is  the  first  battleship  designed  to  use 
electric  turbines  as  a  propelling  power.  She  will  have  twelve 
14-inch  guns  and  will  be  completed  in  1919,  at  a  cost  of  about 
$15,000,000.  Her  bow  will  be  of  the  protruding  clipper 
type. 

Our  Government  has  no  armor  plant.  The  armor  industry  in 
the  United  States  has  reached  a  state  of  development  equal  to 
that  of  any  other  country  and  furnishes  armor  for  warships  for 
some  other  countries  in  competition  with  armor  plants  of  Ger- 
many, England,  and  France.  Armor  plate  is  made  in  sections 
of  the  required  thickness  about  fourteen  feet  in  length  and  nine 
feet  in  width.  The  heaviest  armor  is  placed  amidships  and 
extends  about  six  feet  above  and  two  feet  below  the  water  line. 

In  developing  armor  the  manufacturer  must  ever  bear  in  mind 
that  he  is  endeavoring  to  make  a  plate  which  will  resist  the  pene- 


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302  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

trating  and  perforating  powers  of  the  high  velocity  projectile. 
To  accomplish  this  the  outer  face  of  the  plate  is  highly  carbon- 
ized so  as  to  break  or  shatter  the  projectile  on  impact  while  the 
inner  face  is  of  wrought  steel  to  hold  the  plate  together.  If  the 
plate  is  dense  enough  and  tough  enough  to  overcome  the  re- 
sistence  of  the  projectile  and  to  greatly  reduce  its  velocity,  its 
force  will  have  been  spent  without  serious  injury  to  the  ship. 

Captain  Tressider  of  the  English  Royal  Engineers,  in  1887, 
greatly  advanced  armor  plate  development  by  a  chilling  process 
using  jets  of  water,  striking  the  plate  at  an  angle  under  pressure. 

In  1891,  Mr.  H.  A.  Harvey,  an  American,  produced  in  this 
country  what  is  known  as  the  Harvey  process  of  face  hardening 
steel  in  combination  with  the  Tressider  process. 

In  1895,  Krupp,  of  Germany,  perfected  a  still  more  efficient 
method  of  face  hardening,  which  was  not  equalled  until  recent 
years. 

The  principal  minerals  used  in  armor-plating  processes  are 
manganese,  nickel,  silicon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  chrome,  and 
carbon.  The  metal  used  is  cast  in  ingots  of  thirty  to  seventy 
tons.  When  still  hot  these  ingots  are  forced  into  slabs  of  the  re- 
quired thicknesses  by  hydraulic  pressure  of  six  to  fourteen  thou- 
sand tons.  Then  follows  the  carbonating  process  in  which  the 
temperature  of  the  gases  rises  to  about  1,200°  C.  This  process 
may  last  from  four  to  twelve  hours,  depending  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate.  When  the  furnace  has  cooled  the  plates  are 
oil  hardened  and  then  heated  for  bending,  then  follows  the  an- 
nealing process,  during  which  the  temperature  rises  to  750  to 
800°  C.  The  plates  are  then  hardened  by  placing  them  in  a 
horizontal  position  and  turning  on  jets  of  water  under  pressure. 

Armor  plate  supplied  the  United  States  Navy  is  graded  a,  b, 
c,  or  d,  the  cost  ranging  from  $350  to  $600  a  ton. 

Three  new  battleships  have  been  turned  over  to  the  Govern- 
ment in  1916.  They  are  the  Nevada,  Oklahoma,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. They  constitute  the  most  formidable  addition  to  the 
Navy  that  has  ever  been  made  within  so  short  a  time.  They  are 


WARSHIPS  303 

all  oil  burners  and  fully  on  a  par  with  the  best  ships  of  any  navy 
in  the  world,  except  as  to  speed. 

The  Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  and  has  a  tonnage  of  31,400. 
She  is  600  feet  long,  97  feet  beam.  Her  engines  of  31,500  horse- 
power will  develop  a  speed  of  twenty-one  knots.  Her  armor  is 
eight  to  eighteen  inches  thick  on  turrets,  and  thirteen  inches  on 
barbettes.  She  has  twelve  14-inch  45  caliber  guns  in  four  tur- 
rets on  the  center  line  and  twenty-two  5-inch  guns  for  torpedo 
defense.  She  has  four  21-inch  torpedo  tubes  submerged,  broad- 
side. This  battleship  will  carry  65  officers  and  a  crew  of  1,160 
in  all. 

MONITORS 

Monitors  sacrifice  speed  (12  knots)  and  armor  in  favor  of 
draft  (12  to  14  ft.).  Operate  in  rivers  and  shallow  waters. 
Armament  usually  two  10-inch  or  12-inch  guns.  Length  about 
250  feet.  Displacement  3,250  to  4,000  tons.  Monitors  are 
modeled  after  Ericsson's  monitor  of  Civil  War  fame.  Our  mon- 
itors are  the  Amphitrite,  Cheyenne,  Monadnock,  Monterey, 
Ozark,  Tallahassee,  Tonopah. 

GUNBOATS 

Gunboats  are  1,000  to  1,400  tons  displacement.  Length 
about  200  feet.  Draft  about  12  to  15  feet.  Speed  10  to  15 
knots.  Armament  4-inch  guns.  Normal  crew  8  officers  and  130 
men.  There  are  29  gunboats. 

SEACOAST   TORPEDO   VESSELS 

The  development  of  the  torpedo  as  a  weapon  of  defense 
prompted  the  development  of  a  war  vessel  especially  designed 
to  utilize  it  as  a  weapon  of  offense.  These  vessels,  called  tor- 
pedo boats,  have  all  been  striken  from  the  Navy  list.  Destroy- 
ers No.  1  to  No.  16  of  about  230  tons  displacement,  com- 
missioned in  1902-2  have  been  reclassified  seacoast  torpedo 
vessels.  They  carry  two  3-inch  guns  and  2  18-inch  torpedo 


U.  S.  Monitor  Tallahassee 


J.  S.  Scout  Cruiser 

Salem 


U.  S.  Gunboat  Center 


U.  S.  Destroyer  Terry 


X 


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U.  S.  Submarine  £-1 


Diagrams  by  Major  Wm.  Chamberlaine,  C.  A.  C.,  from  "Coast  Artillery  War 
Game,"  reproduced  by  courtesy,  serve  to  illustrate  silhouettes  of  various  types 
of  warships. 

904 


U.  S.  Dreadnaught  Wyoming 


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U.  S.  Armored  Cruiser 
North  Carolina 


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U.  S.  Protected  Cruiser  Olympic 


Diagrams  by  Major  Wm.  Chamberlaine,  C.  A.  C.,  from  "Coast  Artillery  War 
Game,"  reproduced  by  courtesy,  serve  to  illustrate  silhouettes  of  various  types 
of  warships. 

305 


306  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

tubes  on  deck  with  a  complement  of  3  officers  and  about  70 
enlisted  men.  They  are  very  small  as  compared  to  other  types 
of  warships,  the  essential  feature  being  great  speed.  Like 
destroyers,  they  have  no  armor  protection  and  are,  therefore, 
very  vulnerable  to  attack. 

DESTROYERS 

When  it  was  realized  that  the  great  speed  of  torpedo  boats 
and  their  great  facility  to  maneuver  unobserved  at  night,  dis- 
charging their  deadly  torpedoes  at  close  range  thus  menacing 
the  very  existence  of  gunboat,  cruiser,  and  battleship,  naval 
constructors  set  about  to  develop  a  warship  to  cope  with  this 
new  terror  of  the  sea. 

The  Destroyer  was  the  result.  It  is  a  greatly  enlarged  torpedo 
vessel  with  better  seagoing  qualities,  and  great  speed.  De- 
stroyers have  four  4-inch  guns  and  four  to  eight  torpedo  tubes 
on  deck,  the  torpedo  being  the  same  type  and  size  as  used  by 
larger  ships.  Oil  is  used  as  fuel,  having  a  storage  capacity 
of  90,000  gallons.  Destroyers  serve  also  as  scout  ships  and 
have  a  cruising  radius  of  6,000  miles.  They  are  equipped 
with  radio  communication,  and  powerful  searchlights.  The 
latest  design  has  sloping,  flush  main  deck,  doing  away  with  the 
forecastle.  It  has  cable  and  apparatus  for  sweeping  channels 
for  mines  to  clear  the  way  for  the  fleet.  Metal  furniture  is 
installed  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  inflammable  material  aboard. 
Their  displacement  is  about  1,100  tons,  length  310  feet,  draft  9 
feet,  speed  32  knots,  cost  about  $925,000.  The  complement 
is  4  officers  and  90  men.  The  ratio  of  destroyers  to  battleships 
is  fixed  at  4  to  1,  but  the  number  provided  is  only  about  2  to  1, 
being  58  in  1916. 

OUR   SUBMARINES   AND   SUBMERSIBLES 

It  has  remained  for  the  present  decade  to  experience  the 
full  force  and  potentiality  of  submarine  warfare.  It  is  remark- 


U.  S.  S.  Utah  in  Hudson  River 


U.  S.  Destroyer  Reid 


U.  S.  S.  San  Francisco,  Mine  Layer 


U.  S.  S.  Wyoming 

Displacement  26,000-tons.  Length  550  ft.,  beam  93J  ft.     Maximum  draft  28f  ft. 

Armament  12,  12-inch  guns,  50  caliber;  21,  5-inch,  50  caliber;  4,  3  pounders. 
Torpedo  tubes,  2,  21-inch  submerged.  Armor  11-inch  belt  (amidships)  5-inch  belt 
(ends)  12-inch  turrets;  11-inch  turret  bases;  63  in.  battery.  Parsons'  Turbine  Engines 


WARSHIPS  807 

able  that  over  one  hundred  years  of  study,  theory ,and  practical 
experimentation  was  necessary  to  develop  the  submarine  boat 
to  a  point  of  efficiency  and  standardization  meriting  its  uni- 
versal adoption  by  maritime  powers  as  an  offensive  weapon. 

As  far  back  as  the  War  of  1812  is  chronicled  a  successful  voy- 
age of  a  United  States  submarine  boat  in  search  of  the  British 
flagship  Ramilles.  During  this  war  a  British  squadron  with  the 
Ramilles  as  flag  ship  lay  at  anchor  in  Long  Island  Sound  un- 
molested and  unharmed  for  months. 

In  the  meantime  an  inventor  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  fourteen 
miles  up  the  Thames  River  was  working  away  on  a  submarine 
boat  in  which  when  complete  he  voyaged  under  water  at  the 
rate  of  three  miles  per  hour.  "Three  times  he  went  under  the 
Ramilles  and  on  the  third  occasion  had  nearly  fastened  a  tor- 
pedo to  the  ship's  bottom  when  the  breaking  of  a  screw  baffled 
the  attempt.  He  was  discovered  but  escaped." 

Other  attempts  were  made  to  destroy  the  Ramilles  by  tor- 
pedoes but  only  resulted  in  keeping  her  constantly  on  the  guard 
and  caused  her  bottom  to  be  swept  every  two  hours  night  and 
day.  Finally  the  inhabitants  were  warned  that  if  such  tactics 
were  not  stopped  the  town  of  New  London  would  be  burned. 

Thus  ended  what  appears  to  be  the  original  chapter  of  sub- 
marine-boat warfare.  The  torpedo  had  been  successfully  used  at 
various  places  along  the  Coast  in  1812-13,  but  the  practicability 
of  submarine  boats  was  questioned.  No  doubt  the  fear  of  Ful- 
ton's torpedoes  which  the  British  believed  to  be  in  general  use  at 
various  seaports  saved  the  coast  cities  from  plunder  and  the 
torch. 

Torpedo  warfare  received  great  impetus  during  the  Civil 
War,  various  types  being  developed  by  both  the  Confederates 
and  Federals.  Dragging  for  torpedoes  and  the  use  of  torpedo 
nets  dropped  over  the  sides  of  vessels  were  first  practised  during 
our  Civil  War  but  there  appears  to  have  been  no  use  made  of 
submarine  boats  until  the  present  generation. 

Following  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  in  1865,  Captain 


308  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Ralph  Chandler,  United  States  Navy,  organized  an  expedition 
consisting  of  300  men  in  several  tugs  and  thirty  small  boats 
and  cleared  the  James  River  of  torpedoes  that  had  been  planted 
at  various  points  in  the  river.  In  writing  his  report  Captain 
Chandler  summed  up  the  moral  effect  of  the  torpedo  as  follows : 

"The  knowledge  that  a  simple  touch  (with  a  torpedo  or  sub- 
marine mine)  will  lay  your  ship  a  helpless  sinking  wreck  upon 
the  water  without  even  the  satisfaction  of  firing  one  shot  in 
return  calls  for  more  courage  than  can  be  expressed  and  a  short 
cruise  among  torpedoes  (submarine  mines)  will  sober  the  most 
intrepid  disposition." 

The  Russo-Jap  naval  warfare  clearly  demonstrated  that  the 
mobile  torpedo  used  offensively  by  warships  as  well  as  the  con- 
cealed submarine  mines  used  defensively  at  harbor  entrances 
were  destined  to  play  a  most  vital  and  important  role  in  future 
maritime  warfare.  The  present  European  War  at  once  demon- 
strated conclusively  that  a  new  and  most  deadly  and  efficient 
under-water  craft  had  finally  been  perfected  destined  to  prove 
a  new  element  and  dominating  factor  in  naval  warfare  and 
strategy. 

A  most  forceful  demonstration  of  the  offensive  use  of  the  tor- 
pedo in  the  present  European  War  was  the  complete  destruction 
in  about  twenty  minutes  of  three  12,000-ton  British  cruisers  off 
Heligoland  in  September,  1914,  by  the  torpedoes  of  a  single 
German  submarine  boat  which  escaped  without  injury.  This 
small  submarine  warship  of  perhaps  five  hundred  tons  displace- 
ment representing  a  cost  of  perhaps  $250,000  and  with  a  crew  of 
perhaps  twenty  seamen  completely  destroyed  36,000  tons  of  the 
English  naval  strength  manned  by  2,100  officers  and  sailors, 
fifty  per  cent  of  whom  lost  then*  lives. 

The  submersible  differs  from  the  submarine  only  in  that  it  is 
better  designed  to  cruise  about  on  the  surface  until  sighting  the 
enemy  and  then  submerge  and  has  an  armament  of  small  caliber 
quick-firing  guns.  The  hull  of  the  submarine  is  cigar-shaped 
and  is  built  of  best  quality  steel.  The  workmanship  must  be  of 


WARSHIPS  309 

the  very  best  and  all  seams  and  riveting  be  absolutely  water- 
tight under  considerable  pressure.  Large  high-capacity  storage 
batteries  are  provided  to  supply  the  motive  power  for  speeds 
ranging  from  eight  to  fifteen  knots  per  hour  and  for  a  cruising 
radius  of  perhaps  5,000  miles.  To  pass  from  the  surface  to  the 
submerged  state  valves  are  opened  which  permits  water  to 
enter  huge  tanks  within  the  boat,  the  weight  of  water  causing 
the  boat  to  sink  beneath  the  surface.  The  depth  of  submerg- 
ence desired  is  controllable  by  these  valves,  the  normal  depth 
being  such  depth  as  will  permit  the  periscope  to  remain  a  few 
feet  above  the  surface.  This  periscope  can  be  revolved  by  the 
observer  in  the  conning  tower  who  is  thus  able  to  observe  the 
movements  of  vessels  within  the  radius  of  vision  in  all  directions. 
To  completely  submerge  the  boat  it  is  then  only  necessary  to 
admit  the  small  amount  of  water  equal  to  the  displacement 
of  the  part  of  the  periscope  above  the  surface.  While  in  the 
submerged  condition  all  communication  with  the  outside 
atmosphere  is  necessarily  cut  off.  The  crew  then  must  breathe 
the  air  contained  within  the  boat  which  with  the  reserve  supply 
of  compressed  air  in  the  steel  air  tanks  is  sufficient  for  several 
days. 

The  electric  storage  batteries  which  supply  power  for  oper- 
ating the  propellers  are  also  used  for  running  numerous  auxiliary 
motors  for  pumping,  steering,  handling  torpedoes,  etc.  The 
boat  is  steered  by  an  ordinary  type  of  rudder.  Horizontal 
rudders,  operating  on  the  same  principle,  control  the  depth. 
The  weapon  of  the  submarine  is  the  torpedo,  several  of  which 
can  be  carried.  These  are  fired  through  torpedo  tubes  in  the 
bow  of  the  boat. 

When  Admiral  Sampson  bottled  up  the  Spanish  Squadron  in 
Santiago  Bay,  Cuba,  in  1898,  we  had  no  submarine  boats. 
John  B.  Holland,  a  naturalized  American,  had  successfully 
tested  his  submarine  boat,  known  as  the  Holland  No.  9,  in 
Staten  Island  Sound,  on  St.  Patrick's  Day  of  that  year.  He 
offered  to  enter  Santiago  Harbor  in  this  submarine  and  destroy 


310  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

the  Spanish  Fleet,  which  had  been  there  several  months.  Our 
Navy  Department  was  skeptical  and  declined  his  offer.  After 
more  exhaustive  tests,  the  Government  purchased  this  sub- 
marine from  Mr.  Holland,  in  1900,  paying  therefor  $150,000. 
It  remained  the  property  of  the  Government  until  recently  when 
it  was  sold  to  a  junk  dealer  in  Philadelphia  for  $1,007.  Mr. 
Holland  is  known  internationally  as  the  inventor  of  the  modern 
submarine. 

The  Holland  No.  9  was  only  fifty-three  feet  long,  with  a  10- 
foot  beam  and  seventy-five  tons  displacement.  A  gas  engine 
provided  the  propelling  power  when  running  on  the  surface, 
and  an  electric  motor  when  running  submerged.  Her  speed 
was  eight  knots  on  the  surface  and  five  and  one-half  knots  per 
hour  submerged.  She  could  remain  under  water  a  week  with 
her  crew  of  five.  We  now  have  a  fleet  of  fifty-eight  submarines 
built  and  building. 

Seamen  receive  five  dollars  per  month  extra  for  service 
aboard  submarines  and  one  dollar  per  day  additional  when 
submerged. 


"Do  you  realize  the  task  of  the  navy?  Have  you  ever  let  your  imagination 
dwell  upon  the  enormous  stretch  of  coast  from  the  Canal  to  Alaska?  from  the 
Canal  to  the  northern  corner  of  Maine?  There  is  no  other  navy  in  the  world 
that  has  to  cover  so  great  an  area  of  defense  as  the  American  Navy,  and  it 
ought  in  my  judgment  to  be  incomparably  the  greatest  navy  in  the  world." — 
WOODBOW  WILSON,  St.  Louis  Speech. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
THE  UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS 

"OUR    MABINES" 

"Our  flag's  unfurled  to  every  breeze, 

From  dawn  to  setting  sun; 
We  have  fought  in  every  clime  and  place 

Where  we  could  take  a  gun; 
In  the  snow  of  far-off  Northern  lands 

And  in  sunny  tropics  scenes, 
You  will  find  us  always  on  the  job — 

The  United  States  Marines." 

THE  United  States  Marine  Corps  is  the 
military  branch  of  the  United  States  Navy. 
Our  Marines  are  the  Soldiers  of  the  Sea. 

The  Marine  Corps  is  the  most  efficient 
military  unit  of  our  national  defense  system. 
As  increased  by  the  Act  of  Congress,  July, 
1916,  it  consists  of  a  Major  General  Commandant,  597  officers 
and  14,981  enlisted  men.  Officers  of  the  Marine  Corps,  in 
relation  to  rank  and  pay,  are  on  the  same  basis  as  officers  of 
similar  rank  in  the  Army. 

The  Major  General  Commandant  of  the  Marine  Corps  is 
responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  the  general  effi- 
ciency and  discipline  of  the  Corps.  He  assigns  officers  and  men 
to  shore  stations  and  vessels  of  the  Navy.  He  has  charge  of  and 
exercises  general  supervision  over  the  recruiting  service  of  the 
Corps. 

To  promote  recruitment  a  publicity  bureau  is  maintained 
in  New  York  City  for  the  publication  and  distribution  of  litera- 
ture calculated  to  encourage  enlistments.  This  bureau  is  under 
scientific  management  resulting  in  an  actual  saving  of  $50,000 

311 


312  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

per  year  over  the  former  system  and  with  an  improvement  in  the 
quality  and  number  of  recruits  received.  More  than  750,000 
names  of  prospective  candidates  for  enlistment  are  on  file,  al- 
though the  number  of  vacancies  occurring  annually  is  only 
about  4,000.  This  year  (1916)  5,000  men  in  addition  must  be 
recruited  on  account  of  the  increase  of  the  Corps. 

So  varied  are  the  calls  for  active  service  by  our  marines  to 
meet  the  needs  of  our  Government  in  foreign  lands  and  insular 
possessions,  that  over  fifty  per  cent,  of  them  are  on  foreign  duty 
practically  at  all  times.  Our  marines  see  more  active  service 
than  either  the  Army  or  Navy.  The  percentage  of  reenlistment 
in  the  Marine  Corps  is  greater  than  in  the  Army  or  Navy. 

The  individual  duties  and  routine  life  of  a  marine  cover  a 
greater  variety  of  technical  training  than  those  of  a  sailor  or 
soldier.  These  duties  include  service  on  board  vessels  of  the 

(a)  Active  fleet  and  on  board  capital  ships  now  in  reserve 
whenever  it  becomes  necessary  for  them  to  join  the  active  fleet. 

(6)  As  the  technical  companies  constituting  a  fixed  defense 
force  for  seizing,  fortifying,  and  defending  advance  bases. 

(c)  As  a  mobile  force  consisting  of  infantry  and  artillery, 

(1)  As  support  for  the  fixed  defense  forces  of  advance 
bases,  and 

(2)  For  expeditionary  duty  such  as  that  performed  at  Vera 
Cruz  in  1914  and  now  being  performed  in  Haiti  and  Santo  Do- 
mingo. 

(d)  As  military  garrisons  at  Navy  Yards,  Naval  Magazines, 
and  other  plants  both  in  time  of  peace  and  war. 

(e)  As  detachments  for  duty  at  target  ranges,  recruit  depots, 
United  States  legations,  naval  prisons,  and  hospitals. 

(/)  As  recruiting  details  and  recruit  detachments  under 
training. 

(</)  Detachments  for  administrative  purposes. 

Service  in  the  Marine  Corps  offers  unusual  opportunities 
for  travel  and  study. 

When  the  commerce  of  the  world  centered  in  the  Mediter- 


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1 


1.  U.  S.  submarine  K  7.     Under  way  at  half  speed 

2.  Naval  hydroaeroplane,  pilot  and  observer 

3.  Naval  Aeronautical  Station,  Pensacola,  Florida 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS  313 

ranean  Sea  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  sailing  vessels 
were  the  common  means  of  transportation.  The  principle  was 
then  and  there  evolved  of  increasing  the  security  of  the  ship 
and  cargo  by  having  on  board,  in  addition  to  the  sailing  crew, 
a  trained  military  force  for  service  on  land  as  well  as  on  deck. 
These  were  called  "Epibatae."  United  States  Marines  are 
an  evolution  of  this  ancient  custom  and  practice. 

Our  maintenance  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  the  revolu- 
tion-infested group  of  South  Central  American  Republics 
and  West  Indies,  stimulates  that  constant  preparedness  and 
proficiency  so  typical  of  the  United  States  Marines. 

The  employment  of  infantry  as  part  of  the  force  aboard 
ships  of  war  was  common  to  the  Phoenicians  and  to  all  the 
maritime  states  of  Greece  at  least  five  centuries  before  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  Marines  are  especially  men- 
tioned in  the  account  of  the  battle  of  Lade,  hi  the  time  of  Darius, 
King  of  Persia,  about  497  B.  c.  From  those  times  to  the 
present,  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  efficiency  and  effec- 
tiveness of  a  ship  of  war  is  advantageously  increased  by  the 
addition  to  the  regular  ship's  force  of  a  body  of  men  whose  pe- 
culiar training  fits  them  for  military  service  both  on  land  and  sea. 

At  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the  thirteen  colonies  in 
America  from  Great  Britain,  the  "American  Marine  Corps" 
was  formed  inheriting  the  British  marine  organization  and 
conducted  along  similar  lines. 

The  United  States  Marine  Corps  was  first  called  into  exist- 
ence by  an  Act  of  the  Continental  Congress  of  November  10, 
1775,  and  gallantly  served  with  distinction  throughout  the 
Revolutionary  War.  It  was  disbanded  at  the  close  of  the  War, 
April  11,  1782,  but  was  reorganized  and  permanently  estab- 
lished July  11,  1798.  From  that  day  to  this  its  officers  and 
men  have  been  zealous  participants  in  every  expedition  and 
action  in  which  the  Navy  has  been  engaged  and  in  many  trying 
campaigns  they  have  won  distinction  with  then*  brethren  of 
the  Army.  It  is  the  gallant  little  corps  that  has  so  ably  as- 


314  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

sisted  in  fighting  America's  battles  in  every  corner  of  the  globe 
for  more  than  a  century;  its  members  are  the  first  men  on  the 
ground  in  case  of  trouble  with  a  foreign  power  and  the  first 
men  into  battle  in  case  of  hostilities.  They  have  at  all  times 
served  their  country  faithfully,  both  in  peace  and  war,  and 
have  reflected  great  credit  upon  themselves  as  a  corps  and  on 
the  Nation  which  they  represent.  Ever  have  they  lived  up 
to  the  letter,  as  well  as  the  spirit,  of  the  motto  of  the  corps, 
"Semper  Fidelis" 

They  are  trained,  clothed,  and  equipped  very  much  as  soldiers 
of  the  land  forces.  In  their  preliminary  instruction  on  shore, 
they  are  instructed  and  drilled  in  the  duties  of  infantry  soldiers, 
field  artillerymen,  and  as  machine-gun  companies.  In  pre- 
paration for  their  duties  as  landing  parties  from  ships  of  the 
Navy,  for  expeditionary  duty  and  as  defenders  of  naval  ad- 
vance bases,  they  are  further  trained  in  the  use  of  portable 
searchlights,  the  radio  telegraph,  the  heliograph,  and  the  various 
methods  of  signaling,  range  finders,  the  erection  and  operation 
and  maintenance  of  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  the  plant- 
ing of  land  and  submarine  mines,  the  handling  of  torpedoes, 
the  erection  and  demolition  of  bridges,  the  building  of  roads, 
knotting  and  splicing,  the  handling  of  heavy  weights,  the  use 
of  pulleys,  the  fitting  of  gun  gear,  the  various  methods  of  sling- 
ing and  transporting  ordnance  and  the  mounting  in  suitable 
shore  positions  of  ship's  guns  of  three,  five,  and  six  inch  caliber 
and  the  management  of  the  fire  control  systems  connected 
therewith;  the  manning  of  aero  defense  batteries. 

Great  mobility  and  facilities  for  quick  action  are  required 
of  the  Marines.  They  must  be  kept  in  readiness  to  move  at 
a  moment's  notice  without  any  previous  warning  and  be  pre- 
pared for  service  in  any  climate.  Our  Marines  have  seen  service 
in  Egypt,  Algiers,  Tripoli,  Mexico,  China,  Japan,  Corea,  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  Panama,  Nicaragua,  Santo  Domingo,  in  the  Islands 
of  Formosa,  Sumatra,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines.  They  have 
always  been  in  the  front  rank  of  America's  Defenders. 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS  315 

Marines  now  serve  at  the  following  navy  yards  and  stations : 
Boston,  Massachusetts  Key  West,  Florida 

Hingham,  Massachusetts  Guantanamo,  Cuba 

Portsmouth  New  Hampshire       Managua,  Nicaragua 
New  York,  New  York  Puget  Sound,  Washington 

lona  Island,  New  York  Mare  Island,  Cal.  (near  SF). 

Dover,  New  Jersey  Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania          Winthrop,  Md. 
Indian  Head,  Md.  Guam,  Marianna  Islands 

Washington,  D.  C.  Cavite,  Philippine  Islands 

Annapolis,  Maryland  Olongopa,  Philippine  Islands 

Norfolk,  Virginia  Peking,  China 

Charleston,  South  Carolina         Port  Royal,  South  Carolina 
New  Orleans,  Louisiana  Pensacola,  Florida 

San  Diego,  California 

In  their  service  on  battleships  and  first-class  cruisers  the 
Marines  form  a  part  of  the  ship's  complement  for  battle,  man- 
ning the  seven  inch,  six  inch,  five  inch,  three  inch,  and  six  pounder 
guns  of  the  intermediate  and  secondary  batteries.  They  are 
trained  and  fully  equipped  for  instant  service  as  landing  parties. 

Well-equipped  gymnasiums,  libraries,  reading  rooms,  amuse- 
ment rooms,  bowling  alleys,  tennis  courts,  baseball,  and  foot- 
ball outfits  are  provided  at  all  of  the  larger  barracks  for  the 
amusement  and  entertainment  of  the  men. 

Special  attention  and  encouragement  are  given  to  athletic 
sports  of  all  kinds,  both  in  the  gymnasium  and  out  of  doors; 
boxing  matches,  competitions,  and  meets  are  arranged  and 
prizes  offered  for  those  who  excel  in  the  games  and  tests.  This 
is  done  to  encourage  the  men  to  take  an  active  interest  in  ath- 
letics and  physical  culture,  with  the  realization  and  appreci- 
ation of  the  fact  that  doing  so  the  men  improve  themselves 
physically,  making  more  desirable  and  capable  soldiers  and 
better  and  healthier  citizens  when  they  shall  have  completed 
their  term  of  service  and  returned  to  their  homes  to  engage  in 
the  pursuit  of  civil  life. 


316  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Marine  Corps  baseball  and  football  teams  of  the  various 
barracks  often  participate  in  competitions  with  other  military 
teams  of  their  own  and  neighboring  cities.  In  some  cases 
they  play  in  the  semi-professional  baseball  leagues.  Dances, 
carnivals,  amateur  theatricals,  moving  picture  and  minstrel 
shows  are  frequently  arranged  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  men. 

I  cannot  do  better  in  portraying  the  life  of  our  Marines  than 
to  take  advantage  of  permission  granted  by  Major  General 
George  Barnett,  Commandant,  to  quote  at  length  from  the 
official  booklet  depicting  this  service: 

"'The  Marines  have  landed  and  have  the  situation  well  in 
hand.'  How  frequently  do  we  see  this  headline  in  the  morning 
paper  over  a  press  dispatch  from  some  distant  land  or  remote 
island.  Yet  how  few  of  us  fully  understand  the  significance 
conveyed  in  those  few  words;  how  few  of  us  know  who  these 
Marines  are  who  'have  the  situation  well  in  hand.'  It  con- 
jures up  the  mysteries  of  the  sea,  and  of  strange  lands  and 
stranger  peoples  far  out  of  the  scope  of  our  individual  sphere  of 
observation  or  acquaintance,  for  the  average  American  citizen 
has  but  a  vague  idea  who  the  Marines  are,  where  they  go,  what 
they  do,  their  characteristics,  duties,  and  dress.  Somewhere 
in  his  mind  is  stored  away  the  impression  that  a  Marine  is 
some  kind  of  amphibious  warrior  of  the  sailor  type,  wearing 
sailor  clothes,  and  whose  habitat  is  in  that  part  of  the  world 
where  the  most  trouble  is  brewing.  At  all  events  he  looks 
upon  the  Marine  as  being  a  man  who  is  thoroughly  onto  his 
job  and  lets  it  go  at  that. 

"By  the  time  a  Marine  has  served  his  enlistment  of  four  years 
and  returns  to  his  home  he  may  have  encircled  the  globe  and 
visited  many  foreign  countries.  He  comes  back  a  healthier, 
more  self-reliant,  and  better  man  in  every  respect.  The  ex- 
perience that  he  has  enjoyed  amounts  to  a  liberal  education 
in  itself  and  should  he  have  acquitted  himself  creditably  he 
may  have  earned  promotion,  for  in  our  constantly  increasing 
Marine  Corps  promotion  is  correspondingly  rapid  and  a  young 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS  317 

man  possessing  the  necessary  qualifications  may  climb  to  the 
top  of  the  ladder.  Since  the  Spanish  American  War  thirty- 
three  young  men  have  been  commissioned  from  the  ranks  of 
the  Marine  Corps  as  Second  Lieutenants,  receiving  further 
promotion  in  their  turn.  One  has  already  attained  the  rank 
of  Major.  It  is  not  desired,  however,  to  create  the  impression 
that  promo'tion  from  the  ranks  to  commissioned  grade  is  easily 
attained  for  only  men  possessing  exceptional  qualifications  are 
so  promoted. 

"  Very  rarely  indeed  does  one  meet  a  man  whose  makeup  does 
not  include  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  desire  for  adventure 
and  to  whom  the  possibility  of  travel  especially  to  foreign 
countries  does  not  appeal.  It  is  only  natural  and  human.  No 
matter  how  fond  one  may  be  of  home  and  its  environments, 
the  spirit  of  and  desire  for  travel  and  adventure  is  deeply  rooted 
in  his  nature  and  few  there  are  who  can  resist  the  temptation 
whenever  the  opportunity  offers  itself. 

"Especially  is  this  fact  true  with  relation  to  foreign  travel. 
In  order  to  see  foreign  lands  and  strange  peoples  one  must 
need  cross  the  great  oceans.  The  sea  possesses  an  enchanting 
and  enduring  fascination  for  the  landsman  accustomed  to  the 
quiet  and  prosaic  life  of  the  office,  factory,  or  farm.  To  travel 
by  sea  from  port  to  port,  from  country  to  country,  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  amid  ever-changing  scenery  and  climatic  conditions, 
to  see  and  study  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  strange  races 
of  mankind,  are  and  always  will  be  among  the  highest  ambitions 
of  the  average  man.  In  time  of  war  the  hardships  are  many. 
Forced  marches,  exposure  to  all  kinds  of  weather,  uncomfort- 
able sleeping  accommodations,  loss  of  sleep  and  insufficient 
food  and  water.  But  the  hardships  of  war  are  unavoidable 
and  must  be  expected. 

"A  man  who  serves  an  enlistment  in  any  branch  of  the  military 
or  naval  service  performs  a  patriotic  duty  and  is  in  a  position 
to  perform  invaluable  service  to  his  country  in  case  of  public 
emergency.  Completing  his  enlistment  he  goes  back  to  civil 


318  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

life  possessed  of  a  military  training  which  he  never  forgets 
and  if  afterward  there  should  be  a  call  to  arms  for  the  defense 
of  his  country  he  would  be  prepared  to  step  into  a  higher  posi- 
tion and  perform  more  efficient  and  creditable  service  than 
would  be  the  case  had  he  not  had  the  advantage  of  the  previous 
training  and  schooling  in  the  art  of  warfare.  If  happily  during 
his  life  time  there  should  be  no  war,  he  would  at  least  have  the 
satisfaction  of  having  performed  his  share  of  the  military  duty 
of  his  country." 

Marines  are  given  a  twelve  weeks'  theoretical  and  practical 
training  before  being  taken  up  for  routine  duty.  The  first 
ten  weeks  are  devoted  to  the  study  and  practice  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects: 

Care  of  clothing  and  person         Signaling 
Military  courtesies  Street  riot  drill 

School  of  the  recruit  Artillery  drill 

Physical  drill  with  and  with-       Wall  scaling 

out  arms  Pitching  tents 

Carrying  messages  Field  fortifications 

Nomenclature  of  the  rifle  Extended  order,  advance 

Manual  of  arms  and  rear  guard 

Bayonet  exercise  Athletics 

Squad  and  company  drill  Boxing 

Packing  knapsacks  and  blanket    Swimming 

rolls  Individual  cooking 

Patrolling  First  aid  to  the  injured 

Guard  duty  Handling  boats 

Two  weeks  are  devoted  entirely  to  target  practice  on  the 
range  with  the  service  rifle.  Every  effort  is  made  to  qualify 
the  men  as  marksmen,  sharpshooters,  and  expert  riflemen  which 
not  only  gives  them  an  increase  in  pay  but  makes  them  more 
valuable  to  the  service.  The  success  of  these  efforts  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  the  National  Team  Match  (the  biggest,  greatest, 
and  most  keenly  contested  rifle  match  held  in  the  United  States) 
was  won  by  the  Marine  Corps  team  in  1911  against  all  the  teams 


Sergeant  of  Marines  fully  equipped  for  field  service 


Inspection  of  Marines  in  heavy  marching  order 


Marine  Guard,  Pekin,  China,  rendering  honors  to  a  Chinese 

dignitary 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS  319 

of  the  other  branches  of  the  regular  service  and  the  militia 
of  the  different  states  and  territories,  forty-two  in  all.  It  won 
second  place  in  this  match  in  1915,  losing  to  the  United  States 
Infantry  team  by  three  points  in  3,600  points.  The  "Presi- 
dent's Match,"  which  is  open  to  individual  members  of  the 
Army,  Navy,  Marine  Corps,  Military  Academy,  Naval  Acad- 
emy, Organized  Militia,  and  the  National  Rifle  Association  of 
America  and  affiliated  clubs,  was  won  in  1910  by  Sergeant 
Fragner,  M.  C.;  in  1911  by  Corporal  Lloyd,  M.  C.  against 
480  contestants.  In  1915  the  Marine  Corps  won  second  place 
in  the  international  match  at  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

In  the  annual  target  practice  training  for  1915  about  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  enlisted  strength  of  the  Marine  Corps 
qualified  as  marksmen,  sharpshooters,  or  expert  riflemen.  In 
one  company  composed  of  eighty-one  recruits  of  less  than  four 
months'  training  ninety-four  per  cent,  qualified  as  marksmen  or 
better. 

The  Marine  Corps  has  taken  up  aviation  and  has  already 
qualified  several  flyers. 

Each  year  since  the  war  with  Spain  the  Marine  Corps  has 
been  called  upon  to  furnish  mobile  forces  for  expeditionary  duty. 
These  forces  have  varied  in  size  from  a  battalion  to  a  brigade 
of  over  3,000  men. 

During  the  last  five  years  brigades  of  marines  have  been  en- 
gaged in  foreign  expeditionary  duty  on  six  different  occasions. 
Each  of  these  brigades  has  been  commanded  by  a  Colonel,  for 
the  reason  that  there  were  no  Brigadier  Generals  in  the  Marine 
Corps. 

"Prom  the  Halls  of  Montezuma, 

To  the  shores  of  Tripoli, 
We  fight  our  country's  battles 

On  the  land  as  on  the  sea; 
Admiration  of  the  Nation, 

We  are  the  finest  ever  seen, 
And  we  glory  in  the  title  of 

United  States  Marines." 


CHAPTER  XL 
THE  UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD 

THE  REVENUE  CUTTER  AND  LIFE  SAVING  SERVICE  OF  THE 
TREASURY  DEPARTMENT 

A  NEW  element  of  the  National  Defense  Sys- 
tem was  established  January  28,  1915,  by  the 
act  of  Congress  consolidating  the  Revenue  Cut- 
ter Service  and  the  Life  Saving  Service  of  the 
Treasury  Department  into  the  United  States 
Coast  Guard,  designating  it  as  a  part  of  the  mili- 
tary forces  of  the  Government,  and  directing  the  President  to 
place  it  under  control  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  time  of  war 
or  national  emergency.  Its  organization,  equipment,  and  train- 
ing as  far  as  practicable,  conform  to  those  of  the  Navy  standards. 
The  Coast  Guard  is  administered  by  a  Commandant,  Cap- 
tain Ellsworth  P.  Bertholf.  There  are  255  commissioned  offi- 
cers and  3,886  warrant  officers,  petty  officers,  and  enlisted  men. 
The  officers  are  educated  at  the  Coast  Guard  Academy,  New 
London,  Conn.,  and  upon  graduation  are  commissioned  third 
lieutenants.  This  Academy  gives  three  years  of  scientific, 
technical,  and  practical  training  under  rules  and  regulations 
similar  to  those  governing  the  Military  and  Naval  Academies, 
as  to  appointments,  examinations,  pay  and  allowances,  discipline, 
etc. 

The  Revenue  Cutter  Service  was  founded  in  1790  to  en- 
force the  customs  laws  and  to  serve  as  an  organized  armed 
force  for  the  protection  of  the  sea  coast,  there  being  at  that 
time  no  Naval  Establishment.  It  has  participated  in  every 
war  on  the  seas  in  which  our  nation  has  been  involved. 

320 


UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD  321 

The  Life  Saving  Service  was  established  in  1871  for  the  special 
service  of  saving  life  and  property  along  the  coast. 

The  equipment  of  the  Coast  Guard  consists  of  twenty-four 
cruising  cutters  and  eighteen  harbor  cutters  and  launches, 
located  at  various  seaports  and  Great  Lake  ports  of  the  United 
States  proper,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The 
cruising  cutters  are  of  about  1,000  tons  displacement.  Each 
is  armed  with  from  two  to  four  6-pound  rapid-fire  guns.  These 
guns  are  primarily  for  war  service,  but  in  times  of  peace  are 
used  for  the  purpose  of  shooting  lines  to  vessels  in  distress. 
There  are  280  Coast  Guard  stations  and  houses  of  refuge. 
Each  of  these  stations  is  provided  with  line-projecting  guns, 
hawsers,  breeches  buoys,  and  flag  and  pyrotechnic  signals, 
heaving  sticks  and  lines,  life  preservers,  life  cars,  lifeboats, 
surf  boats,  and  other  types  of  boats,  all  of  which  are  necessary 
for  the  preservation  of  life  and  property  from  the  elements. 
Additional  Coast  Guard  cutters  are  desired  for  use  on  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  rivers  and  their  tributaries,  primarily  to  aid 
sufferers  from  floods. 

The  duties  of  the  Coast  Guard  embrace  almost  every  mari- 
time function  which  the  Government  is  called  upon  to  perform 
for  the  people  and  include : 

1.  Rendering  assistance  to  vessels  in  distress  and  saving  life 
and  property. 

2.  Destruction  or  removal  of  wrecks,  derelicts,  and  other 
floating  dangers  to  navigation. 

3.  Extending  medical  aid  to  United  States  vessels  engaged  in 
deep-sea  fisheries. 

4.  Protection  of  the  customs  revenue. 

5.  Operating  as  a  part  of  the  Navy  in  time  of  war  or  when  the 
President  shall  direct. 

6.  Enforcement  of  law  and  regulations  governing  anchorage 
of  vessels  in  navigable  waters. 

7.  Enforcement  of  law  relating  to  quarantine  and  neutrality. 

8.  Suppression  of  mutinies  on  merchant  vessels. 


322  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

9.  Enforcement  of  navigation  and  other  laws  governing  mer- 
chant vessels  and  motor  boats. 

10.  Enforcement  of  law  to  provide  for  safety  of  life  on  navi- 
gable water  during  regattas  and  marine  parades. 

11.  Protection  of  game  and  the  seal  and  other  fisheries  in 
Alaska,  etc. 

12.  Enforcement  of  sponge-fishing  law. 

13.  Patrolling  ice  fields  of  the  North  Atlantic  to  warn  vessels 
from  danger  of  icebergs. 

During  all  periods  of  the  year  and  at  such  times  as  least  to 
interfere  with  emergent  duties  of  a  civil  nature  a  rigid  system 
of  military  discipline  and  training  is  maintained  to  fit  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Coast  Guard  for  the  duty  of  operating  as  a  part 
of  the  Navy  at  any  time,  as  the  law  requires.  Upon  the  out- 
break of  war  it  automatically  becomes  a  portion  of  the  Navy 
and  has  always  been  found  in  a  state  of  preparedness  when 
called  upon  for  strictly  military  duty.  During  the  winter 
season  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  a  constant  patrol  of  the  entire 
coast  is  maintained  from  Maine  to  Florida  by  a  cordon  of  cutters 
which  cruise  actively  during  the  inclement  weather.  At  all 
hours  of  the  day  or  night  beaches  between  stations  are 
patrolled  by  the  surfmen,  watching  out  for  vessels  which  may 
become  stranded  or  which  approach  too  close  to  the  shore,  or 
dangerous  shoals  or  reefs. 

The  total  annual  appropriation  for  the  Coast  Guard  is  about  five 
million  dollars.  The  services  rendered  hi  1915  were  as  follows: 


Lives  saved  or  persons  rescued  from  peril 1,507 

Persons  on  board  vessels  assisted 10,952 

Persons  in  distress  cared  for 813 

Vessels  boarded  and  papers  examined 24,817 

Vessels  seized  or  reported  for  violation  of  law 772 

Fines  and  penalties  incurred  by  vessels  reported            $330,500 

Regattas  and  marine  parades  patrolled  in  accordance  with  law 37 

Vessels  to  which  assistance  was  rendered 1,504 

Instances  of  miscellaneous  assistance 556 

Derelicts  and  obstructions  to  navigation  removed  or  destroyed »6 

Value  of  vessels  assisted  (including  cargoes) $10,027,730 

Value  of  derelicts  recovered  and  delivered  to  owners 161,000 


Bunks  and  individual  equipment  of  U.  S.  Marines  arranged  for 
monthly  inspection 


U.  S.  Marines  are  quartered  in  large,  commodious  barracks  with 
accommodations  for  a  battalion  of  two  to  four  companies 


The  Mohaivk,  a  Revenue  cutter 


Copyright  by  Hams  £j?  Eating 

Trophy  presented  annually  by  direction  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  to  the  most  efficient  vessel  in  her  class  in  naval 
engineering 


UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD  323 

The  miscellaneous  duties  consist  of  warnings  to  vessels  run- 
ning into  danger,  medical  and  surgical  aid  to  the  sick  and 
injured,  recovery  and  burial  of  bodies  cast  up  by  the  waters, 
extinguishing  of  fires  on  wharves,  vessels,  dwellings,  and  busi- 
ness structures,  fighting  forest  fires,  cooperating  with  local 
authorities  in  the  maintenance  of  public  order,  apprehending 
of  thieves  and  other  law-breakers,  preventing  suicides,  restoring 
lost  children  to  their  parents,  recovering  stolen  property,  and 
salving  miscellaneous  articles  from  danger  or  destruction,  acting 
as  pilots,  furnishing  food,  water,  and  fuel  to  vessels  hi  distress, 
protecting  wrecked  property,  furnishing  transportation  and 
assistance  to  other  branches  of  the  public  service,  etc.  Such 
instances  of  aid  furnished  average  about  six  a  day. 

Military  discipline  prevails  at  all  times,  and  on  board  the 
vessels  of  the  Coast  Guard  a  regular  naval  routine  is  conducted. 
The  uniforms  of  the  officers  and  men  afloat  are  substantially 
like  those  of  the  regular  naval  service.  The  crews  of  all  the 
cutters  are  furnished  with  and  drilled  in  the  use  of  the  Army- 
Navy  standard  rifle. 

Two  of  the  cutters  are  detailed  annually  to  search  for  and 
report  the  positions  of  icebergs  and  fields  approaching  the  North 
Atlantic  steamship  routes  during  the  months  of  March,  April, 
May,  and  June.  This  patrol,  known  as  the  International  patrol, 
was  instituted  immediately  after  the  loss  of  the  Titanic,  and  has 
been  continued  each  year  since  that  lamentable  accident.  It  is 
considered  of  such  importance  that  all  of  the  leading  maritime 
nations  of  the  world  share  with  the  United  States  the  expense 
of  this  patrol. 

In  times  when  our  shores  are  threatened  with  the  ravages  of 
epidemics  or  plagues  from  foreign  countries,  Coast  Guard 
cutters  are  called  upon  to  enforce  quarantine  regulations. 

Mutinies  on  the  high  sea  are  not  infrequent,  even  in  these 
days,  and  cutters  are  occasionally  called  upon  by  merchant 
vessels  to  aid  their  masters  in  suppressing  outbreaks  of  this 
kind  among  the  crews. 


324  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Although  smuggling  of  the  old-fashioned  sort  is  quite  rare 
now,  extreme  precaution  must  be  exercised  by  certain  points 
along  our  7,000  miles  of  sea  boundaries,  to  prevent  the  viola- 
tion of  the  customs  laws. 

In  the  far-distant  islands  of  the  Pacific,  where  bird  reserva- 
tions are  set  aside  by  the  Government,  occasional  visits  of  the 
cutters  are  necessary  to  prevent  poaching  and  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  the  birds  by  bands  of  marauders. 

The  United  States  possesses  the  greatest  seal  reservations  in 
the  world,  and  an  annual  patrol  of  the  waters  adjacent  to  the 
Pribilof  Islands  during  the  breeding  season  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent depredations  on  the  herds  of  seal  and  sea  otters.  This 
important  duty  has  been  maintained  by  the  cutters  since 
Alaska  was  purchased  by  this  Government. 

In  times  of  great  disasters,  such  as  hurricanes,  earthquakes, 
fires,  and  floods  the  cutters  are  always  among  the  first  to  re- 
spond to  calls  for  relief  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  stricken 
communities. 

During  the  summer  months,  when  thousands  of  people  gather 
on  the  water  to  witness  regattas,  yacht  races,  and  other  marine 
pageants  the  Coast  Guard  cutters  are  called  upon  to  police  the 
course  in  order  to  prevent  loss  of  life  due  to  crowding  around  the 
contestants  and  to  keep  the  course  free  from  unwarranted  inter- 
ference on  the  part  of  the  spectators. 

Annually  thousands  of  motor  boats  and  merchant  vessels 
in  general  are  boarded  by  the  cutters  to  see  that  they  are  com- 
plying with  the  laws  relative  to  proper  equipment,  licenses,  etc. 

At  all  the  large  seaports  in  the  United  States  harbor  cutters  are 
employed  in  connection  with  the  customs  service,  to  board  in- 
coming vessels  from  foreign  ports,  to  see  that  they  have  proper 
manifests  and  have  complied  otherwise  with  the  customs  laws. 

The  Coast  Guard  has  experimented  with  the  hydroaeroplane 
as  a  means  of  protecting  life  and  property  at  sea  with  results  so 
satisfactory  as  to  merit  the  addition  of  such  equipment  and  the 
training  of  a  portion  of  its  officers  and  men  for  this  purpose. 


UNITED  STATES  COAST  GUARD  325 

Congress  has  been  asked  to  provide  ten  aerial  stations  on  the 
Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  the  Gulf,  and  the  Great  Lakes  and  to  create 
a  flying  corps  of  expert  aviators  for  same. 

A  fine  opportunity  for  young  men  to  obtain  life  positions  under 
the  Government  is  presented  by  the  examination  to  fill  vacancies 
in  the  line  and  engineer  corps  at  the  Coast  Guard  Academy. 

The  course  covers  a  period  of  three  years  for  line  cadets  and 
one  year  for  cadet  engineers.  Four  months  of  each  year  are 
spent  at  sea  on  the  practice  ship,  during  which  time  the  principal 
ports  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  are  visited.  This  year  the  prac- 
tice cruise  will  include  in  its  itinerary  the  West  Indies  and  the 
Panama  Canal  Zone.  Cadets  receive  $500  per  annum,  and  in 
addition  one  ration,  equivalent  to  $109  per  year.  Cadet  engi- 
neers receive  $75  a\nonth  and  one  ration. 

Candidates  must  be  American  citizens,  unmarried,  physically 
sound,  of  good  moral  character,  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  twenty-four  for  line  cadets  and  twenty  and  twenty-five  for 
cadet  engineers. 

The  examinations,  which  are  strictly  competitive,  require 
the  equivalent  of  a  first-class  high  school  education  for  line 
cadets,  and  in  addition  thereto,  for  cadet  engineers,  a  knowledge 
of  theoretical  steam  engineering. 

After  successfully  completing  the  three-year  course,  cadets 
are  commissioned  as  third  lieutenants  and  have  the  same  rank 
and  pay  as  second  lieutenants  in  the  Army  ($1,700  per  annum). 
Cadet  engineers  are  commissioned  as  third  lieutenants  of  en- 
gineers after  successfully  completing  the  one-year  course  and 
have  the  same  rank  and  pay  as  third  lieutenants. 


"This  great  Republic,  with  its  capacity  for  self-government,  must  be  able 
to  protect  itself  and  its  citizens.  The  nation  that  cannot  or  will  not  do  that 
can  neither  have  respect  abroad  nor  self-respect  at  home." — Elihu  Root. 


CHAPTER  XLI 

RIFLE  PRACTICE— THE  NATIONAL  RIFLE  ASSOCIA- 
TION  OF  AMERICA 

PREPARATION  for  the  defense  of  one's 
country  is  the  highest  type  of  patriotism. 
The  best  individual  preparation  is  ability  to 
handle  the  army  rifle,  shoot  accurately,  de- 
liberately and  with  confidence. 

To  this  end,  Americans  early  in  life  should 
be  trained  in  rifle  practice  or  musketry  at 
various  ranges  and  under  varying  conditions  of  terrain,  tem- 
perature, wind,  and  weather. 

Until  the  passage  of  a  national  training  school  act  for  citizen 
cadet  corps  and  citizen  army  such  as  is  provided  for  in  Senate 
bill  1695  by  Senator  Chamberlain  of  Oregon,  Chairman  of  the 
Senate  Military  Committee,  this  can  best  be  accomplished  by 
membership  in  the  National  Rifle  Association  of  America  which 
was  incorporated  in  1871  by  patriotic  citizens. 

Membership 

Benefactors — To  whom  shall  be  issued  on  payment  of  $1,000 
a  certificate  entitling  the  holder  or  his  nominee  to  membership 
in  the  Association  in  perpetuity. 

Patrons — To  whom  shall  be  issued  on  payment  of  $500  a  certi- 
ficate entitling  him  and  the  male  members  of  his  immediate  fam- 
ily to  membership  in  theAssociationduring  the  life  of  said  patron. 

Life  Members — Who  shall,  upon  the  payment  of  $25,  be  en- 
titled to  membership  during  life. 

326 


National  Trophy  Plaque  competed  for  annually  by 
Army,  Xavy,  Marine  Corps,  National  Guard,  and 
Military  colleges 


Sitting,  kneeling,  and  prone  firing  positions 


RIFLE  PRACTICE  327 

Annual  Membership — Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  may 
become  a  member  of  the  Association  annually  upon  payment  of 

<69 
<p^i. 

Affiliated  Membership — Any  Rifle  Club  or  Association,  Corps, 
Regiment,  Battalion,  Squadron,  Battery,  Troop  or  Company 
unit  of  the  Army,  Organized  Militia  and  equivalent  Navy  and 
Naval  Militia  organizations  may  affiliate  with  the  Association 
upon  payment  of  the  following  membership  fee  and  dues: 

First  Class:  State  Associations:  Fifteen  Dollars  member- 
ship fee  and  Fifteen  Dollars  annual  dues ;  membership  fee  to  cover 
first  year's  dues. 

Second  Class:  Regiments  or  Corps  consisting  of  more  than 
four  companies  of  the  Army,  Organized  Militia,  and  equivalent 
Navy  and  Naval  Militia  organizations:  Ten  Dollars  member- 
ship fee  and  Ten  Dollars  annual  dues;  membership  fee  to  cover 
first  year's  dues. 

Third  Class:  Rifle  Clubs  (other  than  State  Associations) 
Battalions,  Squadrons,  Batteries,  Troops,  and  Company  Units 
of  the  Army,  Organized  Militia  and  equivalent  Navy  and  Naval 
Militia  organizations:  Ten  Dollars  membership  fee  and  Five 
Dollars  annual  dues;  membership  fee  to  cover  first  year's  dues. 

Fourth  Class:  College  Rifle  Clubs,  to  consist  of  rifle  clubs 
composed,  so  far  as  shooting  members  are  concerned,  of  students 
in  colleges,  universities,  and  institutions  of  learning  conferring 
degrees:  Five  Dollars  membership  fee  and  Five  Dollars  dues; 
membership  fee  to  cover  first  year's  dues. 

Fifth  Class:  School  Boys'  Clubs,  to  consist  of  rifle  clubs  com- 
posed, so  far  as  shooting  members  are  concerned,  of  students  in 
any  public  or  private  school  which  does  not  confer  a  degree: 
Two  Dollars  membership  fee  and  Two  Dollars  annual  dues; 
membership  fee  to  cover  first  year's  dues. 

Sixth  Class:  Boys'  Clubs,  other  than  school  clubs,  to  consist 
of  boys  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  eighteen:  Two  Dollars 
membership  fee  and  Two  Dollars  annual  dues;  membership 
fee  to  cover  first  year's  dues. 


328  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Clubs  of  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  class  must  consist 
of  not  less  than  10  members. 

The  object  of  this  Association  is  to  encourage  marksmanship 
throughout  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  direction  of 
qualifying  as  finished  marksmen  those  individuals  who  may  be 
called  upon  to  serve  in  time  of  war;  to  encourage  competition  in 
marksmanship  between  teams  and  individuals;  to  encourage 
legislation  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  ranges; 
to  secure  the  issue  of  military  rifles  and  ammunition  to  those 
practising  on  these  ranges,  and  to  create  a  public  sentiment  in 
respect  to  the  necessity  of  rifle  practice  as  a  means  of  national 
defence. 

The  first  recognition  by  Congress  of  the  work  of  the  N.  R.  A., 
was  in  1902,  by  the  appropriation  of  $2,500  and  the  creation  of 
The  National  Board  for  the  Promotion  of  Rifle  Practice  in  the 
United  States.  By  Act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1903,  a  National 
Trophy  was  provided  as  a  first  prize  for  a  National  Team  Match. 
The  N.  R.  A.  is  the  official  organ  of  the  National  Board  for  the 
Promotion  of  Rifle  Practice  in  the  United  States.  The  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  is  President  of  this  Board. 

So  great  (over  one  hundred  per  cent.)  has  been  the  increase  in 
membership  the  past  twelve  months  and  the  interest  manifested 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  that  the  Military  Committees  have  in- 
cluded an  item  of  $300,000  for  target  range  equipment  and  am- 
munition for  the  clubs  of  this  association  for  fiscal  year,  1917, 
and  which  provides  that  an  officer  be  detailed  as  Director  of 
Civilian  Rifle  Practice,  and  to  whom  the  rank  and  pay  of 
Colonel  is  given. 

This  assures  a  very  active  season.  The  limited  appropriations 
heretofore  have  not  permitted  of  extensive  training  or  organiza- 
tion such  as  will  now  be  possible. 

In  the  District  of  Columbia  over  fifty  rifle  clubs  have  been 
organized  principally  in  the  various  governmental  departments. 
A  schedule  of  events  and  competitions  is  conducted  at  the 
Marine  Corps  range  at  Winthrop,  Md.  for  Saturdays  and  holi- 


RIFLE  PRACTICE  329 

days,  but  the  entire  expenses  of  food  and  transportation  must  be 
met  by  the  individual  members.  The  total  number  of  clubs  in 
the  United  States  is  rapidly  reaching  the  1,100  mark  (see  map). 
At  the  close  of  1915  the  membership  was  as  follows: 


CLUBS,  ETC. 


23  State  Associations 

63  Regiments 

47  Separate  Military  Organizations 
639  Civilian  Rifle 

64  College  and  University 
87  High  Schools 

10  Private  Preparatory  Schools 

32  Military  Schools 

9  Boys'  Clubs  and  Boy  Scouts 
549  Life  Members 
943  Annual  Members 


26,212 

3,353 

2,788 

867 

2,106 

139 

549 

943 


A  great  many  clubs,  rather  than  go  to  the  expense  and  trouble 
of  giving  a  bond  for  the  free  issue,  purchased  their  own  rifles. 
One  club  in  the  District  of  Columbia  with  65  members  acquired 
about  50  new  Springfield  rifles  by  purchase  of  its  members  and  many 
other  clubs  have  done  the  same,  wishing  to  own  rifies  rather 
than  to  take  advantage  of  the  free  issue.  Two  hundred  and 
seventy-five  of  these  clubs  took  advantage  of  the  free  issue  and 
were  issued  2,038  rifles  during  the  year.  There  has  been  issued  to 
clubs  by  the  Ordnance  Department  1,000,635  cartridges.  To 
thirty  school  clubs  there  has  been  issued  1,445  rifles,  1,223  carbines, 
and  198,360  cartridges. 

The  course  of  rifle  firing  as  laid  down  by  the  War  Department 
is  followed  as  far  as  practicable,  but  a  great  many  clubs  are  un- 
able to  get  the  longer  ranges.  During  the  year  1915  the  clubs 
qualified  under  the  Militia  Course  817  experts,  606  sharpshooters, 
and  702  marksmen.  The  best  record  was  by  the  Fort  Pitt  Rifle 
Club  of  Pittsburgh  which  qualified  22  experts  and  1  sharp- 
shooter. The  Los  Angeles  Rifle  and  Revolver  Club  qualified  the 
second  largest  number,  20  experts  and  1  sharpshooter,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Rifle  Club  of  Butte,  Montana,  was  third  with 
20  experts. 


330  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  national  team  match  brings  together  the  best  rifle  shots 
of  the  United  States  and  has  grown  to  be  a  most  important 
military  event  since  teams  are  entered  from  the  Mobile  Army, 
the  Navy,  Marines,  National  Guard,  District  of  Columbia,  and 
Colleges.  This  trophy  was  won  three  years  in  succession  by  the 
New  York  National  Guard;  four  years  by  the  Infantry  team 
United  States  Army,  once  by  the  Navy,  Cavalry,  and  Marine 
Corps,  the  latter  losing  the  1915  match  to  the  United  States  In- 
fantry by  3  points  in  a  total  of  3,646  points. 

The  1916  match  will  be  held  at  Jacksonville  Florida,  beginning 
October  20th. 

The  trophy,  a  handsome  bronze  plaque,  27  inches  wide  by  48 
inches  high,  is  the  most  coveted  rifle  shooting  team  trophy,  and  is 
held  by  the  winning  organization  one  year  or  until  the  next  com- 
petition. Having  been  won  by  the  United  States  of  America 
Infantry  team  in  1915,  it  is  now  on  exhibition  in  the  corridor  of 
the  War  Department  Building  and  is  one  of  the  objects  of  interest 
to  visitors. 

TABLE  i.—  LIST  OF  TEAMS  REPRESENT-       17.  Ohio   .  3,518 

ING    THE     UNITED     STATES     ARMY,        18.  Kentucky      .     .     .  3,Si8 

UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS,  THE       19.  Iowa  ........     ,  3,508 

ORGANIZED  MILITIA  OF  THE  SEVERAL       20.  North  Carolina  ......  3,498 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  AND  THE       31.  New  Mexico       ......  3,497 

DISTRICT   OF    COLUMBIA,   AND    COL-       22.  Arizona    .....     ....  3,495 

LEGES  IN  THE  NATIONAL  MATCHES  OF       23.  New  Jersey    ...      ....  3,495 

1915,  WITH  AGGREGATE  SCORES,  IN  24.  Vermont  .  .  ,  ...  3,493 

ORDER  OF  STANDING.  25.  Tennessee  .......  3,487 

26.  Hawaii     ........  3,486 

CLASS  A.  27.  District  of  Columbia  ....  3,484 

28.  New  Hampshire  ......  3,474 

t.  United  States  Army  Infantry  .     .  3,646       *£  Alabama  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.     3^45 

2.  United  States  Marine  Corps    .      .  3,643 

3.  United  States  Army  Cavalry   .      .  3,598 

4.  Massachusetts     ......  3,587  CLASS  C. 

5-  Pj.eS°n  .  ........  3,574  3I.  Arkansas       .......  3,444 

6-  Wisconsin      .......  3,567  *a.  Georgia     ........  3  436 

7.  New  York  .  .......  3,566  £  Oklahoma      .......  3  420 

8-  Pennsylvania      ......  3,563  *J  Rhode  Island      ......  |  *I3 

9.  Minnesota     .......  3,562  3S.  Colorado  ........  3,400 

10.  Kansas     ........      3,560         6    Connecticut  .......      3,399 

"•  U'nois      ........      3,559         7.  Maine       ........      1^3 

"'  ™yomm5  ........      3>S4°       38-  S°uth  Carolina   ......      3  382 


™  - 

I3'  waTv?d-  •  .......      3lS2£       3Q-  Montana        .......  3,377 

14.  West  Virginia     ......      3,5*6       j£  Missouri  ........  3  373 

15.  Indiana    ........     3,525       4I.  North  Dakota    ......  3,327 

42.  Louisiana       .......  3,297 

CLASS  B.  43.  Delaware  ........  3,289 

44.  South  Carolina  Military  Academy 

16.  Florida     ........     3,520  Cadets    .......  3.124 


RIFLE  PRACTICE  331 

In  addition  to  numerous  inter-club  and  State  matches,  pre- 
liminary to  the  national  matches  there  are  held  the  Inter-Club 
(State)  Gallery  Competition. 

The  Inter-Collegiate  Gallery  Competition.  The  Inter-Mil- 
itary School  Gallery  Competition.  The  Inter-High  School 
Gallery  Competition. 

The  indoor  inter-collegiate  matches  for  1916  were  won  by  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  Rifle  Club.  The  University  of 
Michigan  Rifle  Club  won  class  "B"  medals  and  the  special 
prize  for  the  non-military  college  making  the  highest  score  in  the 
matches.  Columbia  University  was  the  winner  in  class  "C" 
matches.  The  "Astor  Cup"  match  was  won  by  the  Iowa  City 
High  School  Rifle  Club.  The  St.  Johns  Military  Academy, 
Delafield,  Wisconsin,  won  second  place  in  that  match.  There 
were  twenty -nine  entries. 

The  first  inter-club  match  of  the  District  of  Columbia  Rifle 
Association  was  held  on  the  Marine  Corps  Rifle  range  at  Win- 
throp,  Maryland,  May  20,  1916.  Forty-two  teams  of  four 
shooters  each  participated. 

Outdoor  small-arms  shooting  is  becoming  popular  with  all 
rifle  clubs.  With  the  idea  of  encouraging  group  shooting  the  N. 
R.  A.  will  include  a  match  for  groups  of  shooters. 

In  the  Army  reorganization  bill  approved  June  3,  1916,  rifle 
practice  is  encouraged  and  advanced  by  a  section  requiring  the 
Secretary  of  War  to  annually  submit  to  Congress  recommenda- 
tions and  estimates  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
indoor  and  outdoor  rifle  ranges  under  such  a  comprehensive  plan 
as  will  ultimately  result  in  providing  adequate  facilities  for  rifle 
practice  in  all  sections  of  the  country.  All  such  ranges  are  to 
be  open  for  use  by  those  in  any  branch  of  the  military  or  naval 
service  and  by  all  able-bodied  males  capable  of  bearing  arms. 
The  President  is  authorized  to  detail  capable  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  to  duty  at  such  ranges  as  instructors,  for 
the  purpose  of  training  these  citizenry  in  the  use  of  the  military 
arm. 


332 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


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RIFLE  PRACTICE 


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334  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

To  promote  proficiency  in  marksmanship  in  the  Mobile  Army, 
the  Navy,  the  Marine  Corps,  schools  of  musketry  are  maintained 
and  additional  monthly  pay  is  authorized  (except  in  the  Navy) 
as  follows: 

As  marksman,  $2— $3— $5. 

As  sharpshooter,  $3. 

As  expert  rifleman,  $5. 

Except  through  the  International  Team  Matches  of  the  Na- 
tional Rifle  Association,  there  is  no  accurate  method  of  comparing 
the  relative  proficiency  in  marksmanship  between  these  arms  of 
the  national  defense  system. 

We  have  in  our  services  a  universal  small-arms  rifle  and  am- 
munition. The  Army  .30  caliber  magazine  rifle  manufactured 
by  the  Ordnance  Department  is  issued  to  all  elements  of  our 
National  Defense  System:  soldier,  sailor,  marine,  national 
guardsman,  West  Point  and  Annapolis  cadets,  coast  guard,  rifle 
clubs,  military  colleges,  and  camps  of  instruction.  There  are 
nearly  one  million  of  these  serviceable  rifles.  The  allowance  of 
ammunition  is  liberal  and  target  ranges  quite  numerous.  Con- 
ditions now  are  most  favorable  for  the  rapid  development  of  that 
keen  rivalry  through  friendly  competition  which  makes  for  mil- 
itary proficiency  and  preparedness. 

It  would  appear  practicable,  therefore,  to  undertake  to  further 
promote  proficiency  in  rifle  practice  through  the  rivalry  certain 
to  follow  by  requiring  all  elements  to  shoot  the  same  courses 
under  uniform  regulations  and  conditions  as  far  as  practicable. 

MUSKETRY    IN    THE   ARMY 

The  United  States  Army  was  unable  to  conduct  annual  com- 
petitions in  1913  except  in  the  Philippine  Division,  due  to  the 
extensive  border  duty. 

The  numbers  of  qualifications  in  the  several  organizations  of 
the  line  of  the  Army  in  the  grades  of  expert  rifleman,  sharp- 
shooter, and  marksman,  and  expert  pistol  shot,  since  1909,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


RIFLE  PRACTICE 


335 


Grades. 

Years. 

1909 

igio 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

2,875 
9,79° 
5,8i5 

0 

2,151 
8,857 
5,741 

Sio 

1,211 
7,326 
5,196 
1,050 

1,312 
9,323 
6,307 
1,335 

1,627 
11,144 
7,121 
1,412 

2,180 
8,236 
12,423 
981 

Marksmen  

Expert  revolver  shot  .... 

The  Army  School  of  Musketry,  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma,  gives 
to  officers  and  specially  selected  enlisted  men  a  three-months' 
course  of  training  in  individual  and  collective  fire,  including 
combat  firing  and  the  proficiency  test. 

In  the  Army  a  man  has  only  one  chance  each  year  to  qualify, 
whereas  in  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  an  individual  may 
have  several  chances  to  qualify. 

Estimating  the  number  of  candidates  for  marksmen  in  the 
Army  in  1914  to  be  100,000  would  indicate  that  the  Army  is 
qualifying  only  about  twenty-three  per  cent,  of  its  enlisted  men 
as  marksmen. 


MUSKETRY  IN  THE  NAVY 

In  the  Navy  the  1915  reports  indicate  that  very  close  atten- 
tion is  being  paid  to  this  vital  factor  of  individual  proficiency. 
Fleet  trophies,  squadron  prizes,  and  ship  matches  are  indulged 
in  throughout  the  year.  When  in  foreign  waters  matches  are 
occasionally  held  with  teams  from  foreign  navies.  The  Auck- 
land Cup  was  presented  by  the  citizens  of  Auckland,  Australia, 
on  the  occasion  of  a  match  there  between  a  United  States  Navy 
team  and  the  team  of  the  Auckland  District  Volunteers.  The 
Argentine-American  Naval  trophy  put  up  by  the  Argentine 
Navy  and  won  by  it  from  the  United  States  Navy  at  Camp 
Perry,  Ohio,  in  1913,  will  be  competed  for  again  whenever  an 
Argentine  man-of-war  and  a  United  States  man-of-war  are  in 
the  same  waters  of  one  of  the  two  nations. 


336  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

The  Fleet  trophies  for  1915  were  awarded  as  follows: 
Atlantic  Fleet  Trophy  to  the  Dolphin. 
Pacific  Fleet  Trophy  to  the  Yorktown. 
Asiatic  Fleet  Trophy  to  the  Quiros. 

After  June  30,  1916,  these  three  silver  cups  will  be  awarded 
—one  in  the  Atlantic  Fleet,  one  in  the  Pacific  Fleet,  and  one  in 
the  Asiatic  Fleet — to  the  winning  vessel  in  Fleet  matches  when- 
ever a  Fleet  match  is  held  under  the  direction  of  a  commander- 
in-chief  of  a  Fleet,  provided  that  four  or  more  teams  compete  in 
a  regular  ships'  team  competition  held  under  the  provisions 
of  the  Firing  Regulations  for  Small  Arms,  United  States  Navy, 
and  then  the  cups  will  be  transferred  upon  the  completion  of  the 
matches. 

Beginning  with  the  year  ending  June  30,  1917,  the  Depart- 
ment will  offer  three  trophies  for  general  excellence  in  small- 
arms  practice — one  for  the  battleship  and  armored  cruiser 
class,  one  for  the  cruiser  and  gunboat  class,  and  one  for  de- 
stroyers and  divisions  of  submarines.  This  classification  is 
analogous  to  the  classification  for  other  gunnery  trophies  ex- 
cept that  divisions  of  submarines  which  are  considered  separate 
from  their  tenders  are  added  to  the  destroyer  class.  These 
trophies  will  be  awarded  in  each  class  annually  to  the  vessel 
or  division  of  submarines  attaining  the  highest  final  merit. 

•The  reports  from  sixty -eight  ships  and  from  shore  stations 
indicate  that  of  12,546  officers  and  men  who  fired  8,224  quali- 
fied as  marksman,  2,983  qualified  as  sharpshooter,  1,158  quali- 
fied as  expert  rifleman,  232  qualified  as  expert  pistol  shot. 

While  this  is  a  most  excellent  showing  for  those  firing,  it 
represents  only  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  enlisted  per- 
sonnel of  the  Navy. 

Very  close  and  diligent  attention  is  given  to  rifle  practice 
in  the  Marine  Corps  under  enthusiastic  instructors  and  coaches 
and  for  a  period  of  time  sufficient  to  qualify  a  very  large  per- 
centage of  those  firing.  This  instruction  is  taken  up  as  recruit 
instruction  with  about  three  weeks'  actual  range  work  during 


RIFLE  PRACTICE  337 

the  first  two  or  three  months  of  service  with  the  result  that 
in  some  companies  upward  of  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  recruits 
qualify  as  marksmen,  during  their  first  three  months  of  service. 
In  the  year  1915  the  number  qualifying  in  the  U.  S.  Marine 
Corps  was:  Expert  Riflemen  883,  Sharpshooters  2536,  Marks- 
man 1471. 


"Only  when  arbitration  is  able  to  unravel  the  tangled  skein  of  crime  and 
hypocrisy  among  individuals  can  it  be  extended  to  communities  and  nations. 
Thence  will  Interniatonal  Arbitration  come  of  its  own  accord  as  the  natural 
outgrowth  of  national  evolution  through  the  individual.  As  nations  are  only 
man  in  the  aggregate,  they  are  the  aggregate  of  his  crimes  and  deception  and 
depravity,  and  so  long  as  these  constitute  the  basis  of  individual  impulse,  so 
long  will  they  control  the  acts  of  nations. 

"When,  therefore,  the  merchant  arbitrates  with  the  customer  he  is  about  to 
cheat;  when  trusts  arbitrate  with  the  people  they  are  about  to  fleece;  when  the 
bulls  and  bears  arbitrate  with  the  lambs  they  are  about  to  shear;  when  the  thief 
arbitrates  with  the  man  he  is  about  to  rob,  or  the  murderer  with  his  victim, 
and  so  on  throughout  the  category  of  crime,  then  will  communities  be  able  to 
dispense  with  laws,  and  international  thievery  and  deception,  shearing  and 
murder,  resort  to  arbitration." — GENERAL  HOMER  LEA.  * 


CHAPTER  XLII 
THE  AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS 

THE  American  National  Red  Cross  has  had  a 
number  of  incorporations,  first  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  in  1881,  under  the  name  of  the  American 
Association  of  the  Red  Cross;  again  in  1893  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  under  the  name  of  the  Ameri- 
can National  Red  Cross,  and  in  1900  it  was  given  a  national 
incorporation  by  Congress.  Its  last  incorporation  was  received 
from  Congress  January  5,  1905,  in  order  to  embody  certain 
important  changes  in  its  organization  and  methods  of  adminis- 
tration. The  last  incorporation  was  the  first  one  to  protect  and 
restrict  the  use  of  the  Red  Cross  insignia,  although  the  United 
States  signified  its  adherence  to  the  provisions  of  the  Geneva 
Convention  in  1882. 

This  International  Conference  of  Geneva,  recommended 
"that  there  exist  in  every  country  a  committee  whose  mission 
consists  in  cooperating  in  times  of  war  with  the  hospital  service 
of  the  armies  by  all  means  in  its  power." 

The  Geneva  Convention  of  1864  and  the  Geneva  Convention 
of  1906,  the  latter  held  for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  Treaty  of 
Geneva  (sometimes  called  the  "Red  Cross  Treaty"),  give  defi- 
nite status  to  certain  officially  recognized  volunteer  aid  societies. 
These  societies,  because  of  the  character  of  the  insignia  or  badge 
adopted  to  distinguish  their  personnel  and  material  (a  Greek 
Red  Cross  on  a  white  ground)  are  universally  known  as  "Red 
Cross"  societies. 

338 


AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS 


PREVENTS  AND  RELIEVES  HUMAN  SUFFERING 

The  American  National  Red  Cross  is  intended  to  aid  in  the 
prevention  and  alleviation  of  human  suffering  in  times  of  peace 
as  well  as  war. 

Its  motto  is  "Neutrality  and  Humanity." 

The  medical  service  of  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Marine  .Corps 
being  non-combatant  arms  of  service,  have  in  keeping  with 
the  practice  and  agreement  of  all  world  powers  adopted  the 
red  cross  as  the  emblem  to  be  worn  in  battle  to  guarantee  im- 
munity from  attack  or  capture  as  prisoners  of  war. 

The  American  Red  Cross  only  recently  began  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Department  of  Military  Relief.  It  is  now  rapidly 
perfecting  its  administration  and  organization  based  upon  the 
following  diagram: 

PRESIDENT -VICE  PRESIDENT  • 

CENTRAL  COMMITTEE     HH 

(EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE]  B^ 

CHAIRMAN 
VICE  CHAIRMAN 


DIAGRAM  OS  ORGANIZATION  OP  AMERICAN  RED  CROSS 

President  Wilson  is  President  of  the  Society  and  Ex-Presi- 
dent Taft  Chairman  of  the  Central  Committee.  Major- 
General  Arthur  Murray,  U.  S.  A.,  Retired,  is  Vice-chairman 
of  the  Central  Committee.  Other  members  of  the  Central 
Committee  at  present  are  the  Secretary  of  State,  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  the  Surgeons  General  of  the 
Army  and  Navy,  the  Solicitor  General  of  the  Department  of 


340 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


Justice.  Colonel  Jefferson  R.  Kean,  M  C.,  U.  S.  Army,  is  Direc- 
tor General  of  Military  Relief,  and  Mr.  E.  P.  Bicknell  Direc- 
tor General  of  Civil  Relief. 

The  Red  Cross  is  required  by  law  to  make  an  annual  report 
to  Congress  through  the  Secretary  of  War.  The  President  is  au- 
thorized to  detail  not  to  exceed  five  officers  of  the  Army  Medical 
Corps  for  duty  with  the  Military  Relief  Division.  Facilities  for 
the  storage  of  relief  supplies  at  army  posts  is  authorized  by  law. 

A  recent  report  of  the  operations  of  the  American  Red  Cross 
shows  that  the  following  shipments  have  been  made  to  European 
and  other  countries  from  September  7,  1914,  to  July  1,  1916. 


SUPPLIES   SHIPPED   TO  ALLIED   POWERS 


COUNTRIES 

NO.   OF 
PACKAGES 

VALUE 

Belgium  

1,642 

$      74,797  61 

Belgium  via  Holland     

507 

41,764  50 

England  

2,616 

117,710  80 

France     

10,257 

365,593  88 

Italy  

525 

34,794  57 

Montenegro  

372 

19,510  75 

Russia     

2,424 

114,410  47 

Total  

32,605 

$1,002,021.87 

SUPPLIES   SHIPPED   TO  THE   CENTRAL  POWERS 


COUNTRIES 

NO.    OP 
PACKAGES 

VALUE 

Austria    

1,891 

$      95,336.09 

Bulgaria  

51 

3,391.40 

Germany       

2,512 

122,029  .  30 

Turkey                                

309 

14,489.82 

Prisoners  in  South  Africa  and  Siberia 

1,904 

75,485.75 

Total  

6,667 

$    310,732.36 

AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS  341 

SUPPLIES  SHIPPED  TO  COUNTRIES  OTHER  THAN  IN  PRECEEDING  TABLES 


COUNTRIES 

NO.   OF 
PACKAGES 

VALUE 

,< 

Armenia  

42 

$        2,255  85 

Haiti       

11 

705  96 

Mesopotamia     
Mexico    

20 
101 

610.35 
2,335  39 

Poland     

300 

8,950  00 

Syria 

86 

3,091  57 

Total  

563 

$      17,949.12 

The  reason  for  the  discrepancy  between  the  amount  sent  to 
the  Allied  Countries  and  to  the  Central  Powers  is  that  since 
January  16,  1916,  the  Red  Cross  has  not  been  permitted  by  the 
Allies  to  ship  any  supplies  to  the  Central  Powers. 

THE    AMERICAN    RED    CROSS 

Since  its  organization  in  1905  it  has  received  and  disbursed 
over  $10,000,000  in  cash  and  donated  relief  supplies  to  the 
value  of  over  $5,000,000.  It  has  conducted  over  eighty  Relief 
Operations  in  various  parts  of  the  world  such  as  the  Japanese 
Famine  of  1906;  the  San  Francisco,  the  Vesuvius,  the  Valparaiso, 
and  Kingston  earthquakes  of  1906-07;  the  Chinese  famines  of 
1907-10;  Italian  Earthquake,  Messina,  1908;  Cherry  Mine  Dis- 
aster, 1909;  forest  fires  in  1910;  forest  fires,  plagues,  mine 
disasters,  1911;  Titanic  Wreck  and  Mississippi  Flood,  1912; 
Ohio  and  Interior  Storm  and  Flood  Relief;  Grecian-Balkan  War; 
Serbian  Balkan-Turkish  Balkan  Relief,  1913. 

Floods,  Mexican  Insurrection,  Volcano  and  other  relief,  1914; 
Serbian  Anti-Typhus  Campaign  and  Eastland  Disaster,  and 
European  War  Relief,  1915-16. 

The  American  Red  Cross  has  sent  about  four  hundred  sur- 
geons, trained  nurses,  and  sanitarians  to  various  parts  of  Europe. 
Shipments  of  supplies  exceeding  5,000,000  pounds  have  been 
made  to  Europe's  war  zones. 

The  last  American  Red  Cross  hospital  unit  in  the  War  Zone 


342  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

of  Europe,  that  at  La  Panne,  Belgium,  was  withdrawn  May  1, 
1916.  The  American  hospital  units  remaining  in  Europe  are 
of  private  character  and  maintained  principally  by  universities 
and  by  American  philanthrophy. 

There  are  now  being  organized  in  large  cities  of  the  United 
States  by  the  Military  Relief  Division  one  or  more  Red  Cross 
Base  Hospital  units  costing  $25,000  each  for  equipment.  These 
units  are  being  directed  by  the  most  distinguished  surgeons  in 
America.  New  York  has  three  such  units,  Boston  three,  Balti- 
more two,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  Pittsburgh 
and  Rochester,  and  Grand  Rapids  one  each. 

The  Department  of  Military  Relief. 

"To  furnish  volunteer  aid  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  armies 
in  time  of  war  hi  accordance  with  the  spirit  and  conditions  of 
the  Conference  of  Geneva  of  October,  1863,  and  also  of  the 
Treaty  of  Geneva  of  August  22,  1864,  to  which  the  United 
States  of  America  gave  its  adhesion  March  1, 1882. 

"To  perform  all  the  duties  devolved  upon  a  national  society 
by  each  nation  which  has  acceded  to  said  Treaty. 

"To  act  in  matters  of  voluntary  relief  and  in  accord  with  the 
military  and  naval  authorities  as  a  medium  of  communication 
between  the  people  of  the  United  States  of  America  and  their 
Army  and  Navy,  and  to  act  in  such  matters  between  similar 
national  societies  of  other  governments  through  the  'Comite 
International  de  Secours,'  and  the  Government  and  the  people 
and  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States  of  America." 

Within  this  Department,  therefore,  come  all  duties  of  the  Red 
Cross  relating  to  the  equipment  and  management  of  hospitals, 
hospital  trains,  hospital  ships;  transportation  of  sick  and 
wounded;  the  manufacture,  collection,  storage,  and  distribution 
of  hospital  and  other  supplies,  and  the  organization  of  infor- 
mation bureaus,  wherever  required,  to  serve  as  a  means  of 
communication  between  the  people  of  the  United  States  and 
their  Army  and  Navy. 

j&  naval  base  hospital  is  being  organized  in  Brooklyn.    Con- 


AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS 


343 


gress  has  placed  upon  the  American  Red  Cross  relief  activities 
as  follows : 

ORGANIZATION  o*  RED  CROSS  BASE  HOSPITALS 


Red  Cross  Base  Hospital  —  Army 

Medical 
Officers 

£ 

Nurses  Aids 
(Volunteers) 

Administra- 
tion 

Civilian 
Employees 

Director     

i 

ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISION: 
Record  Section,  Adjutant: 
Correspondence  ~> 

Records  of  personnel    I 
Command  of  administrative  personnel      {  .     .     . 
Sick  call  for  administrative  personnel     J 
Medical  and  surgical  records  .                 .  ) 
Admissions  and  discharges                 .     .  >  Registrar  . 

i 
i 

3 

5 
6 

as 

23 

Reports  of  cases  —  physical  examinations  ) 
Supply  Section,  Quartermaster: 
Property,  Medical,  Q.M.,  Ordnance,  Signal  ~| 
Transportation  V... 

i 

10 

IS 

Buildings      .                ) 

Subsistence  Section,  Quartermaster: 
Purchase  and  issue  of  food      

4 

IS 

Kitchen,  main    

I 

ICC 

Dining  room      

8 

ib 

Officers'  mess     

2 

1C 

Diet  kitchen    (                                   )    

2 

4 

2 

Nurses'  mess  •<  Under  chief  nurse      f   

2 

2C4m 

Linen  room     (                                   j    

I 

6 

PROFESSIONAL  DIVISION; 
Wards  

38 

15 

2O 

Surgical  Section,  Assistant  Director,  others  8  . 

p 

Operating  room  

6 

2 

Medical  Section,  Assistant  Director,  others  6  . 

7 

Dispensary   

4 

3 

Bacteriological,  pathological,  and  X-ray  laboratories 

Morgue   

Dental  Section,  Dentists  a     

2 

2 

Chaplain   

I 

2 

Chapel,  library  

26 

So 

as 

80 

IS 

Minimum  number  necessary  for  enrollment:  Medical  officers,  23;  dental  officers,  2;  chaplain 
i;  nurses,  50;  male  administrative  personnel,  all  grades,  So;  civilian  employes,  15;  nurses'  aids, 
volunteers,  25,  total,  ig6. 

(s)  indicates  stenographers,  (cc)  chief  cooks,  (b)  bakers,  (m)  maids. 

The  establishment  of  supply  depots  and  organizations  into 
columns  and  other  units  of  physicians,  surgeons,  nurses,  and 
other  personnel  which  may  be  needed  for  war  service.  Courses 
of  instruction  under  Medical  Officers  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
are  maintained  as  follows:  first  year,  First  Aid  to  the  Injured 


344  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

(24  lessons  of  1  hour  each);  second  year  Elementary  Hygiene 
and  Home  Care  of  the  Sick  (24  lessons  1  hour  each).  Upon 
completion  of  these  courses  by  members  of  the  Red  Cross 
certificates  of  proficiency  are  granted  bearing  the  signature 
of  President  Wilson  and  other  officials. 

In  time  of  disaster  the  Department  of  Military  Relief  will 
furnish  any  medical  or  nursing  personnel  which  may  be  needed 
by  the  Department  of  Civilian  Relief. 

FIELD   COLUMNS   CONSIST  OP 

1  Director. 

4  Assistant  Directors. 

6  Section  Chiefs. 
16  Assistant  Section  Chiefs. 
64  Men. 


SUPPLY  UNITS  CONSIST  OP 


Directors. 
Pharmacists. 
Clerks. 
Handlers. 
Teamsters,  etc. 


HOSPITAL  UNITS  CONSIST  OF 

1  Director. 

3  Assistant  Directors  and  as  many  Staff  Surgeons  as  may  be 
required. 

1  Chief  Nurse. 
45  Nurses. 

Nurses'  aids  as  required. 

2  Section  Chiefs. 

Dieticians,  cooks,  ward  orderlies,  etc. 


AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS  345 

INFORMATION  BUBEAU  SECTIONS  CONSIST  OP 

Directors. 

Clerks. 

Stenographers,  typewriters,  etc. 

A  spirited  campaign  is  now  under  way  to  increase  the  mem- 
bership of  the  American  Red  Cross  from  its  insignificant  member- 
ship of  27,000,  January  1,  1916,  to  a  million  members. 

Even  then  it  would  scarcely  equal  one-half  of  the  membership 
of  the  Japanese  Red  Cross.  As  a  result  of  this  campaign,  how- 
ever, the  membership  has  already  been  increased  to  196,000. 

Any  resident  of  the  United  States,  of  good  character,  is 
eligible  for  enrollment  as  a  member  of  the  Red  Cross.  There 
are  four  classes  of  membership:  patron,  life  membership,  sus- 
taining membership,  and  annual  membership.  A  patron  pays 
$100;  the  dues  for  life  membership  are  $25,  for  sustaining 
membership  $10,  payable  annually,  and  for  annual  membership 
$1,  payable  annually.  Applications  for  enrollment  should  be 
addressed  to  the  American  Red  Cross,  Washington,  D.  C.,  or 
to  the  Secretary  of  a  local  Chapter.  All  members  receive  the 
monthly  illustrated  Red  Cross  Magazine  during  the  period  of 
their  membership. 

FRENCH  RED  CROSS  ACHIEVEMENTS 

The  Societe  de  Secours  aux  Blesses  Militaires,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  three  societies  that  compose  the  French  Red 
Cross,  spent  about  $430,000  per  month  during  the  first  eleven 
months  of  the  Old  World  War,  says  a  recent  Associated  Press 
dispatch  from  Paris.  This  report  reviews  the  Society's  activities 
up  to  July  1st. 

The  other  two  societies  have  spent  together  about  $300,000 
per  month,  which  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  will  make  a  total 
of  about  $9,000,000,  to  which  should  be  added  more  than 


346  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

$1,000,000  in  gifts  of  supplies  from  different  countries,  bringing 
the  total  expenditure  by  the  French  Red  Cross  for  the  care  of 
wounded  soldiers  to  more  than  $850,000  per  month. 

With  this  money  the  Red  Cross  has  established  more  than  a 
thousand  hospitals  containing  more  than  100,000  beds,  100 
infirmaries,  60  canteens  in  railway  stations,  and  130  relief 
posts  near  the  front;  hi  this  work  about  18,000  trained  nurses 
and  15,000  auxiliary  nurses  have  been  employed.  Of  these 
five  were  killed  in  the  bombardment  of  Rheims  and  eleven 
have  succumbed  to  contagious  diseases  contracted  while  caring 
for  soldiers  in  hospitals.  One  nurse  has  been  decorated  with 
the  legion  of  honor,  30  have  been  cited  in  the  orders  of  the  day, 
and  23  have  been  accorded  the  epidemic  medal. 


"So  far  as  transporting  troops  is  concerned,  the  sea  as  a  highway  is  not  an 
obstacle,  but  a  facility.  It  is  very  much  easier  to  get  any  number  of  troops 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  than  it  would  be  to  get  the  same  number  over  anything 
like  the  same  distance  on  land.  Marine  transportation  is  the  very  best  kind 
you  can  have;  the  easiest,  least  expensive,  and  most  expeditious,  if  you  are  con- 
sidering large  bodies  of  troops  and  large  amounts  of  material.  The  fuel  charge 
for  transportation  in  good  tramp  steamers  does  not  amount  to  one  two-hundred- 
and-fiftieth  part  of  a  cent  per  ton  per  mile.  The  sea  is  a  splendid  means  of 
transportation.  The  distance  is  only  ten  days  for  a  vessel  of  very  moderate 
speed,  and  you  can  carry  a  thousand  men  on  a  vessel  of  3,000  tons'  capacity 
without  any  trouble  at  all.  There  are  any  number  of  vessels  to  be  had,  and 
there  is  no  resistance  on  this  side  against  a  well-equipped  force  of  a  hundred 
thousand  men." — GENERAL  WILLIAM  CBOZIER. 


CHAPTER  XLIH 
BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA 

INCORPORATED    February    8,    1910, 
Chartered  by  Congress  June,  1916. 

When  the  English  Army  invaded  South 
Africa  during  the  Boer  War  it  discovered  a 
very  valuable  auxiliary  organization  of  boys 
under  military  age.  This  force  known  as 
boy  scouts  were  thoroughly  organized  and 
performing  all  manner  of  messenger  service 
and  non-military  duty  in  filling  the  places 
of  those  who  had  joined  the  Boer  Army. 
General  Baden-Powell  carried  the  idea  back 
to  England  and  organized  the  Boy  Scouts 
of  England.  During  the  first  eight  months  of  the  European 
War  5,000  medals  were  given  to  Boy  Scouts  of  England  who 
had  performed  no  fewer  than  twenty-eight  days'  service.  About 
50,000  boys  had  served  a  shorter  time.  Some  served  as  Coast 
Guardsmen  taking  the  place  of  men  recalled  to  the  fleet.  In  1910 
General  Baden-Powell  visited  Canada  and  the  United  States  ap- 
pearing hi  various  parts  of  the  country  advocating  a  similar  organ- 
ization here  as  a  means  of  development  of  the  potentialities  of  the 
American  boys.  The  Boy  Scouts  of  America  are  now  conduct- 
ing a  spirited  campaign  for  new  members  and  have  passed  the 
quarter  million  mark.  It  is  wielding  a  potent  influence  in  the 
health,  education,  morality  and  business  training  and  leadership 
of  young  America.  As  a  Scout  the  boy  willingly  adopts  as  real 
and  vital  the  universally  accepted  principles  of  life  as  set 
forth  in  the  Scout  Oath  and  Law.  This  effectively  influences  the 

.847 


848  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

boy's  nature  and  character  so  as  better  to  prepare  him  for 
that  work  which  the  church  can  best  do.  The  church  plays  a 
leading  r61e  in  the  Boy  Scout  movement  since  it  offers  a  common 
and  free  place  of  meeting  under  the  inspiring  environment  of 
Christian  endeavor  and  leadership.  The  Scout  movement  is 
not  seeking  to  displace  established  educational  institution  for 
the  value  of  school  instruction  is  indisputable.  It  does,  how- 
ever, aim  to  supplement  by  engaging  the  boy's  leisure  energies 
in  outdoor  games  and  activities  of  culture  and  practical  value. 

SCOUTCRAFT  INSTRUCTION 

Scoutcraft  includes  instruction  in  First  Aid,  Life  Saving, 
Tracking,  Signaling,  Cycling,  Nature  Study,  Seamanship, 
Campcraft,  Woodcraft,  Chivalry  and  all  of  the  handicrafts. 

In  Scouting  the  boy  does  not  stand  still.  The  opportunity 
and  incentive  for  progress  are  always  at  hand. 

He  first  becomes  a  Tenderfoot,  then  a  Second-class  Scout, 
and  then  a  First-class  Scout.  After  this  the  whole  sphere  of 
the  Scout  program  is  made  available  by  the  boy's  own  applica- 
tion in  qualifying  himself  to  pass  the  test  for  the  various  merit 
badges,  which  cover  the  following  subjects: 

Agriculture  Cooking  Music 

Angling  Craftsmanship  Painting 

Archery  Cycling  Pathfinding 

Architecture  Dairying  Personal  Health 

Art  Electricity  Photography 

Astronomy  Firemanship  Physical  Development 

Athletics  First  Aid  Pioneering 

Automobiling  First  Aid  to  Animals        Plumbing 

Aviation  Forestry  Poultry  Keeping 

Bee  Keeping  Gardening  Printing 

Bird  Study  Handicraft  Public  Health 

Blacksmithing  Horsemanship  Safety  First 

Bugling  Interpreting  Scholarship 

Business  Leather  Working  Sculpture 

Camping  Life  Saving  Seamanship 

Carpentry  Machinery  Signaling 

Chemistry  Marksmanship  Stalking 

Civics  Masonry  Surveying 

Conservation  Mining  Swimming 

Taxidermy 


BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  349 

A  boy  takes  up  a  hobby  with  the  same  zest  that  he  plays 
tennis  or  football,  and  that  hobby  may  become  his  trade.  In 
other  words,  a  boy  has  transferred  his  efforts  from  idle  play  or 
harmful  mischief  to  vital  achievements.  And  when  the  boy 
has  learned  to  think  constructively  through  the  agency  of  play 
his  problems  are  greatly  simplified  and  his  life  more  worth  the 
living. 


THE   SCOUT   LAW 

1.  A  Scout  is  trustworthy — 

A  Scout's  honor  is  to  be  trusted.  If  he  were  to  violate  his 
honor  by  telling  a  lie,  or  by  cheating,  or  by  not  doing  exactly 
a  given  task,  when  trusted  on  his  honor,  he  may  be  directed  to 
hand  over  his  Scout  badge. 

2.  A  Scout  is  loyal — 

He  is  loyal  to  all  to  whom  loyalty  is  due:  his  Scout  Leader,  his 
home  and  parents  and  his  country. 

3.  A  Scout  is  helpful — 

He  must  be  prepared  at  any  time  to  save  life,  help  injured 
persons,  and  share  the  home  duties.  He  must  do  at  least  one 
good  turn  to  somebody  every  day. 

4.  A  Scout  is  friendly — 

He  is  a  friend  and  a  brother  to  every  other  Scout. 

5.  A  Scout  is  courteous — 

He  is  polite  to  all,  especially  to  women,  children,  old  people, 
and  the  weak  and  helpless.  He  must  not  take  pay  for  being 
helpful  or  courteous. 

6.  A  Scout  is  kind — 

He  is  a  friend  to  animals.  He  will  not  kill  nor  hurt  any  living 
creature  needlessly,  but  will  strive  to  save  and  protect  all  harm- 
less life. 

7.  A  Scout  is  obedient — 

He  obeys  his  parents,  Scout  master,  patrol  leader,  and  all 
other  duly  constituted  authorities. 


350  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

8.  A  Scout  is  cheerful — 

He  smiles  whenever  he  can.  His  obedience  to  orders  is 
prompt  and  cheery.  He  never  shirks  nor  grumbles  at  hardships. 

9.  A  Scout  is  thrifty — 

He  does  not  wantonly  destroy  property.  He  works  faith- 
fully, wastes  nothing,  and  makes  the  best  use  of  his  opportuni- 
ties. He  saves  his  money  so  that  he  may  pay  his  own  way,  be 
generous  to  those  in  need,  and  helpful  to  worthy  objects.  He 
may  work  for  pay,  but  must  not  receive  tips  for  courtesies  or 
good  turns. 

10.  A  Scout  is  brave — 

He  has  the  courage  to  face  danger  in  spite  of  fear,  and  has  to 
stand  up  for  the  right  against  the  coaxings  of  friends  or  the  jeers 
or  threats  of  enemies,  and  defeat  does  not  down  him. 

11.  A  Scout  is  clean — 

He  keeps  clean  in  body  and  thought,  stands  for  clean  speech, 
clean  sport,  clean  habits,  and  travels  with  a  clean  crowd. 

12.  A  Scout  is  reverent — 

He  is  reverent  toward  God.  He  is  faithful  in  his  religious 
duties,  and  respects  the  convictions  of  others  in  matters  of  cus- 
tom and  religion. 

This  organization  at  once  appeals  to  all  classes  of  boys  without 
regard  to  religion  or  color.  The  son  of  the  wealthy  meets  the 
boy  of  poverty  on  equal  terms. 

The  Boy  Scout  idea  is  a  movement  rather  than  an  Organiza- 
tion. It  aims  to  supplement  existing  organizations.  The  aim 
of  the  Scout  movement  is  to  inculcate  character,  which  though 
essential  to  success  in  life  is  not  taught  within  the  schools  and 
being  a  matter  largely  of  environment  is  too  generally  left  to 
chance  often  with  deplorable  results.  The  Scout  movement 
endeavors  to  supply  the  required  environment  and  ambitions 
through  gains  and  outdoor  activities,  which  lead  a  boy  to 
become  a  better  man  and  good  citizen. 

Scouting  means  outdoor  life  and  health,  strength,  happiness 
and  practicable  education  by  combining  wholesome,  attractive, 


BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  351 

outdoor  activities  and  with  the  influence  of  the  Scout  Oath  and 
Law  this  movement  develops  character. 

It  develops  the  power  of  initiative  and  resourcefulness.  It 
helps  boys.  It  insures  good  citizenship. 

Conservation  of  our  national  resources  is  universally  ap- 
proved. The  Boy  Scout  movement  conserves  the  moral,  intel- 
lectual, and  physical  future  of  the  coming  generation. 

Nearly  two  hundred  thousand  boys  are  now  registered  Scouts. 
In  addition  to  this,  there  are  probably  as  many  more  boys  who 
are  more  or  less  actively  following  out  the  Scout  program. 
They  pay  their  own  expenses,  but  must  be  directed,  taught,  and 
helped.  Seven  thousand  upright  men — largely  college  men — are 
scoutmasters  and  assistants.  They  receive  no  pay,  but  they 
must  be  carefully  selected,  and  stimulated  by  helpful  publica- 
tions and  field  work.  No  expensive  equipment  is  required. 
All  that  is  needed  is  the  out  of  doors,  a  group  of  boys,  and  a 
competent  leader. 

Scouting  presents  greater  opportunities  for  the  development 
of  the  boy  religiously  than  does  any  other  movement  instituted 
solely  for  the  boys.  Its  aim  to  develop  the  boy  physically, 
mentally,  and  spiritually  is  being  realized  very  widely.  The 
movement  has  been  developed  on  such  broad  lines  as  to  em- 
brace all  classes,  all  creeds,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  allow  the 
greatest  possible  independence  to  individual  organizations, 
officers,  and  boys. 

The  Boy  Scouts  of  America  maintain  that  no  boy  can  grow 
into  the  best  kind  of  citizenship  without  recognizing  his  obliga- 
tion to  God.  The  recognition  of  God  as  the  ruling  and  leading 
power  in  the  universe,  and  the  grateful  acknowledgment  of 
His  favors  and  blessings  is  necessary  to  the  best  type  of  citizen- 
ship and  is  a  wholesome  thing  in  the  education  of  the  growing 
boy.  No  matter  what  the  boy  may  be — Catholic,  or  Protest- 
ant, or  Jew — this  fundamental  need  of  good  citizenship  should 
be  kept  before  him. 

The  Boy  Scouts'  organization  teaches  patriotism  by  telling 


352  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

him  about  the  country  he  lives  in,  her  history,  her  army,  and 
navy,  in  order  that  he  may  become  a  good  citizen  and  do  those 
things  which  every  citizen  ought  to  do  to  make  the  community 
and  land  that  he  lives  in  the  best  community  and  land  in  the  world. 

Good  citizenship  means  to  the  Boy  Scout  not  merely  the 
doing  of  things  which  he  ought  to  do  when  he  becomes  a  man, 
such  as  voting,  keeping  the  law,  and  paying  his  taxes,  but  the 
looking  for  opportunities  to  do  good  turns  by  safeguarding 
the  interests  of  the  community  and  by  the  giving  of  himself  in 
unselfish  service  to  the  town  or  city,  and  even  the  nation,  of 
which  he  is  a  part.  It  means  that  he  will  seek  public  office 
when  the  public  office  needs  him.  It  means  that  he  will  stand 
for  the  equal  opportunity  and  justice  which  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  the  Constitution  guarantees.  It  means 
that  in  every  duty  of  life  he  may  be  on  the  right  side  and 'loyal 
to  the  best  interests  of  the  State  and  Nation.  By  the  "good 
turn"  that  he  does  daily  as  a  Boy  Scout,  he  is  training  himself 
for  the  unselfish  service  that  our  cities  and  land  need  so  much. 

The  Boy  Scout  movement  neither  promotes  nor  discourages 
military  training,  its  chief  concern  being  the  development  of  char- 
acter and  personal  efficiency  of  boys  in  then*  teens.  To  accom- 
plish this,  the  program  necessarily  includes  special  attention  to 
the  virtues  of  loyalty,  courtesy,  kindness,  obedience,  cheerful- 
ness, bravery,  cleanliness,  reverence,  resourcefulness,  chivalry, 
temperance,  moral  courage,  neatness,  order,  alertness,  physical 
strength  and  endurance. 

To  this  end,  special  instruction  is  given  in  patriotism,  sig- 
naling, cooking,  camping,  sanitation,  first  aid  to  the  injured, 
how  to  care  for  oneself  in  the  open,  chivalry,  woodcraft,  personal 
hygiene,  public  hygiene,  and  the  general  principles  conducive 
to  good  discipline. 

While  some  of  these  things  are  included  in  the  ordinary 
preparation  for  the  responsibilities  of  the  life  of  the  soldier,  in 
the  Scout  program  they  are  all  indispensable  if  a  Scout  is  to  live 
up  to  the  motto,  "Be  Prepared"  and  to  fulfill  his  obligations 


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BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  353 

as  a  citizen  in  times  of  peace,  no  matter  how  humble  his  position 
may  be.  This  means  personal  efficiency  and  character  develop- 
ment, and  thus  makes  the  Boy  Scout  movement  in  reality  as 
strong  a  factor  as  any  other  one  agency  which  the  country  now 
has  for  preparedness. 

The  uniform,  the  patrol,  the  troop,  the  special  Scout  drills,  and 
activities  are  not  meant  to  be  parts  of  military  training  organiza- 
tion. They  are  for  the  uniformity,  the  harmony,  and  rhythm 
of  spirit  which  boys  learn  in  Scouting.  It  is  in  the  wearing  of 
the  uniform,  and  the  doing  of  things  together  as  Scouts  that 
they  absorb  the  force  and  truth  of  the  Scout  Law  which  states 
that  "a  Scout  is  a  friend  to  all  and  a  brother  to  every  other 
Scout."  The  rifle,  the  sword,  and  other  purely  military  ac- 
coutrement are  not  included  in  the  equipment  of  troops  of 
Boy  Scouts  of  America. 


EDUCATIONAL  DEPARTMENT 

Through  two  contributions  totaling  $5,500,  the  establishment 
of  a  Scout  Department  of  Education  has  been  made  possible. 

The  activity  and  scope  of  this  Department  as  presented  by 
the  Committee  of  Education  is  as  follows: 

(1)  Keep  constantly  before  scoutmasters  and  others  actively 
engaged  in  Scouting,  helpful  information  and  definite  programs 
of  practical  assistance. 

(2)  Prepare   and   secure   publication   of   articles   explaining 
the  Scout  Movement,  with  a  view  to  encouraging  formation 
of  troops  and  of  securing  volunteer  service  and  financial  sup- 
port. 

(3)  Arrange  for  exhibits  and  personal  appeals  before  various 
student  bodies,  educational  and  religious  conventions  and  con- 
ferences, for  men  to  serve  as  scoutmasters. 

(4)  Arrange  for  a  course  of  reading  or  training  courses  for 
men,  who,  in  this  way  volunteer  to  take  up  Scout  work  at  some 
future  time. 


354  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

(5)  Develop  plans,  programs,  and  suggestions  for  boys' 
camps,  with  the  hope  that  if  finances  permit,  a  man  should  be 
appointed  to  give  all  his  time  as  National  Camp  Director. 

Scout  training  courses  are  given  at  Columbia  University, 
University  of  Virginia,  University  of  California  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas. 

A  very  notable  development  in  the  recognition  of  Scouting 
by  educational  authorities,  in  addition  to  what  has  taken  place 
at  Columbia,  is  the  raising  of  the  Pingree  Memorial  Fund  of 
$10,000  for  the  department  of  Scout  training  hi  the  Boston 
University. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  TENDERFOOT 

To  become  a  Scout  a  boy  must  be  at  least  twelve  years  of  age  and 
must  pass  a  test  hi  the  following: 

1.  Know  the  Scout  Law,  sign,  salute,  and  significance  of 
the  badge. 

2.  Know  the  composition  and  history  of  the  national  flag 
and  the  customary  forms  of  respect  due  to  it. 

3.  Tie  as  directed  four  out  of  the  following  knots:  square  or 
reef,    sheet-bend,    bowline,    fisherman's,    sheepshank,    halter, 
clove  hitch,  timber  hitch,  or  two  hah*  hitches. 

He  then  takes  the  Scout  Oath,  is  enrolled  as  a  Tenderfoot, 
and  is  entitled  to  wear  the  Tenderfoot  Badge. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SECOND-CLASS  SCOUT 

To  become  a  Second-class  Scout,  a  Tenderfoot  must  pass 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  recognized  local  Scout  authorities 
the  following  tests : 

1.  At  least  one  month's  service  as  a  Tenderfoot. 

2.  Elementary  first-aid  and  bandaging: — know  the  general 
directions  for  first-aid  for  injuries;  know  treatment  for  fault- 
ing, shock,  fractures,  bruises,  sprains,  injuries  in  which  the 


BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  355 

skin  is  broken,  burns,  and  scalds;  demonstrate  how  to  carry 
injured,  the  use  of  the  triangular  and  roller  bandages  and 
tourniquet. 

3.  Elementary  Signaling: — know  the  semaphore  or  the  In- 
ternational Morse  alphabet. 

4.  Track  half  a  mile  in  twenty-five  minutes;  or,  if  in  town, 
describe  satisfactorily  the  contents  of  one  store  window  out 
of  four  observed  for  one  minute  each. 

5.  Go  a  mile  in  twelve  minutes  at  Scout's  pace — about  fifty 
steps  running  and  fifty  walking  alternately. 

6.  Use  properly  knife  or  hatchet. 

7.  Prove  ability  to  build  a  fire  in  the  open,  using  not  more 
than  two  matches. 

8.  Cook  a  quarter  of  pound  of  meat  and  two  potatoes,  in 
the  open,  without  the  ordinary  kitchen  cooking  utensils. 

9.  Earn  and  deposit  at  least  one  dollar  in  a  public  bank. 
10.  Know  the  sixteen  principal  points  of  the  compass. 


REQUIREMENTS   FOR   FIRST-CLASS   SCOUTS 

To  become  a  First-class  Scout,  the  Second-class  Scout  must 
have  served  as  a  Second-class  Scout  for  at  least  two  months  and 
pass  the  following  test : 

1.  Swim  fifty  yards. 

2.  Earn  and  deposit  at  least  two  dollars  in  a  public  bank. 

3.  Send  and  receive  a  message  by  semaphore  or  the  Inter- 
national Morse  alphabet,  sixteen  letters  per  minute. 

4.  Make  a  round  trip  alone  (or  with  another  Scout)  to  a  point 
at  least  seven  miles  away  (fourteen  miles  in  all),  going  on  foot,  or 
rowing  boat,  and  write  a  satisfactory  account  of  the  trip  and 
things  observed. 

5.  Advance  first  aid :  Know  the  methods  for  panic  prevention; 
what  do  do  in  case  of  fire  at  nights,  electric  and  gas  accidents; 
how  to  help  in  case  of  runaway  horse,  mad  dog,  or  snake  bite; 
treatment  of  dislocation,  unconsciousness,  poisoning,  faulting, 


356  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

apoplexy,  sun-stroke,  heat  exhaustion,  and  freezing;  know  treat- 
ment for  sun-burn,  ivy  poisoning,  bite  and  stings,  nose  bleed,  ear- 
ache, toothache,  inflammation  or  grit  in  eye,  cramp  or  stomach- 
ache, ague  and  chills;  demonstrate  artificial  respiration. 

6.  Prepare  and  cook  satisfactorily,  in  the  open,  without- 
regular  kitchen  utensils,  two  of  the  following  articles  as  may  be 
directed:  eggs,  bacon,  hunter's  stew,  fish,  fowl,  game,  pancakes, 
hoecake,  biscuit,  hardtack  or  a  "twist"  baked  on  a  stick;  explain 
to  another  boy  the  methods  followed. 

7.  Read  a  map  correctly,  and  draw,  from  field  notes  made  on 
the  spot,  an  intelligible  rough  sketch  map,  indicating  by  their 
proper  marks  important  buildings,  roads,  trolley  lines,  main 
landmarks,  principal  elevations,  etc.     Point  out  a  compass  di- 
rection without  the  help  of  the  compass. 

8.  Use  properly  an  ax  for  felling  or  trimming  light  timber;  or 
produce  an  article  of  carpentry  or  cabinet-making  or  metal  work 
made  by  himself.     Explain  the  method  used. 

9.  Judge  distance,  size,  number,  height,  and  weight  within 
twenty-five  per  cent. 

10.  Describe  fully  from  observation  ten  species  of  trees  or 
plants,  including  poison  ivy,  by  their  bark,  leaves,  flowers,  fruits, 
or  scent;  or  six  species  of  wild  birds  by  their  plumage,  notes, 
tracks,  or  habits;  or  six  species  of  native  wild  animals  by  their 
form,  color,  call,  tracks  or  habits ;  find  the  North  Star,  and  name 
and  describe  at  least  three  constellations  of  stars. 

11.  Furnish  satisfactory  evidence  that  he  has  put  into  practice 
in  his  daily  life  the  principles  of  the  Scout  Oath  and  Law. 

12.  Enlist  a  boy  trained  by  himself  in  the  requirements  of  a 
Tenderfoot. 

THE   SCOUT   MOTTO 

The  motto  of  the  Boy  Scouts  is  BE  PREPARED.  This 
means  that  the  Scout  is  always  in  a  state  of  readiness  in  mind  and 
body  to  do  his  duty. 


OFFICIAL 
SCOUT  QCLT 


Of)  ZHCXGCNCV 
aOPC  HANGING 
—THOU  HOOK 


— »  CANTCCM 


857 


358 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 


STATISTICAL  DATA  or  REGISTERED  SCOUT  TROOPS  AND  SCOUTMASTERS  IN  GOOD  STANDING  ON 
JANUARY  i,  1916 


Regarding  Scout  Troops 
Institution 

Baptist 

Christian  Disciples      .... 
Community  Institute. 

Congregational 

Episcopal 

Hebrew  Synagogue     .... 

Independent     

Lutheran 

Methodist 

Mormon 

Presbyterian 

Private  School 

Public  School 

Reformed 

Roman  Catholic 

Y.  M.  C.  A 

Miscellaneous 

No  Record  .     .     . 


Total. 


7,375 

Meeting  Place 

Armory 37 

Church 3,489 

Community  Institute 243 

Homes 408 

Other  Public  Buildings    ....  654 

Public  School 770 

Rented  Quarters 97 

Scout  Building 120 

Y.  M.  C.  A 246 

Miscellaneous 260 

No  Record 1,061 

Total 7,375 

Regarding  Scoutmasters 
Marital  Relation 

Married — Has  Boys 2,734 

Married — No  Boys 2,105 

Single         2,228 

Total 7,067 

Average  Age 33 

Nationality 

American 5,651 

English 518 

French 14 

German 194 

Greek 3 

Italian 7 

Irish 55 

Scotch         141 

Miscellaneous 185 

No  Record 299 


Regarding  Scoutmasters — Continued 
Occupation 

Clergymen 1,645 

Doctor 200 

Government  Employee    ....  149 

Journalist 53 

Lawyer 147 

Mechanical  Occupation    ....  691 

Mercantile  Pursuit 1,739 

Profl  Engineer 69 

Student 235 

Teacher 790 

Y.  M.  C.  A 175 

Miscellaneous 838 

No  Record 336 


Total. 


7,067 


Education 

College  .........  3,956 

Grammar    ........  1,127 

High      .........  1,547 

No  Record       .......  437 

Total  .........  7,067 

Experience      ..... 

Boys'  Brigade  .......  127 

Boys'  Club  ........  1,310 

Boy  Scouts  ........  902 

Mjlitary      ........  187 

Ministry     ........  206 

Playground      .......  4 

S.  S.  Teacher   .......  1,013 

-  Teaching     ........  349 

Y.  M.  C.  A  ........  757 

Miscellaneous  .......  373 

None     .........  132 

No  Record       .......  1,707 

Total  .........  7,067 


Church  Preference 
Baptist 
Christian 
Congregational 
Episcopal 
Hebrew 
Lutheran 


Methodist   ........      1,974 


Mormon 

Presbyterian 

Reformed 

Roman  Catholic 

Miscellaneous 

None 

No  Record 


114 


Total 


7,067 


Total  .........     7,067 


BOY  SCOUTS  OF  AMERICA  359 

THE   SCOUT   OATH 

Before  he  becomes  a  Scout  a  boy  must  promise: 
On  my  honor  I  will  do  my  best: 

1.  To  do  my  duty  to  God  and  my  country,  and  to  obey  the 
Scout  Law; 

2.  To  help  other  people  at  all  times; 

3.  To  keep  myself  physically  strong,  mentally  awake,  and 
morally  straight. 

When  taking  this  oath  the  Scout  will  stand,  holding  up  his 
right  hand,  palm  to  the  front,  thumb  resting  on  the  nail  of  the 
little  finger  and  the  other  three  fingers  upright  and  together. 

THE   SCOUT   SIGN 

The  position  of  the  hand  just  described,  under  the  Scout  Oath, 
is  the  Scout  Sign.  The  three  fingers  held  up  remind  him  of  his 
three  promises  in  the  Scout  Oath. 

THE   SCOUT   SALUTE 

When  the  three  fingers  thus  held  are  raised  to  the  forehead,  it 
is  the  Scout  Salute. 

THEODORE   ROOSEVELT   ON  THE   BOY   SCOUT   MOVEMENT 
(Excerpts  from  a  public  letter  addressed  to  the  American  Boy  Scouts) 

We  should  copy  the  example  of  Switzerland  and  Australia, 
two  of  the  most  absolute  democracies  in  the  world,  and  should 
train  our  boys  in  the  schools  after  they  reach  a  certain  age,  so 
that  at  some  period  between  the  ages  of  18  and  21  they  may  be 
trained  by  actual  service  in  the  field  with  the  colors  to  be  a  real 
and  not  a  sham  citizen  soldiery.  This  is  the  only  democratic 
system. 

In  a  democracy  no  man  has  any  right  to  escape  military  train- 
ing and,  if  necessary,  military  service,  any  more  than  he  has  the 
right  to  escape  the  payment  of  taxes.  One  obligation  should  no 
more  be  treated  as  voluntary  than  the  other.  .  .  . 


360  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Every  boy  should  be  trained  to  know  that  every  able-bodied 
citizen  owes  a  civic  duty  to  the  nation  all  the  time,  and  not  a  sol- 
dier's duty  in  time  of  war.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  voluntary 
action.  It  is  not  open  to  the  right-thinking  boy  or  man  to  decide 
whether  he  will  volunteer  to  be  patriotic  or  volunteer  to  have 
somebody  else  patriotic  for  him.  It  is  his  duty  to  be  patriotic. 
Primarily  he  must  show  his  patriotism  by  his  service  to  the  na- 
tion in  time  of  peace;  but  in  time  of  war  he  owes  a  soldier's  duty 
to  the  nation.  It  may  not  be  in  the  fighting  line,  but  it  is 
wherever  he  is  best  fitted  to  work.  He  should,  while  a  boy, 
have  such  training  as  will  help  his  whole  general  development 
as  a  useful  all-round  citizen  of  the  country.  .  .  . 

Of  course  there  can  be  no  adequate  preparedness  for  war  un- 
less there  is  preparedness  for  the  duties  of  peace,  just  exactly  as 
it  is  useless  to  prepare  for  the  duties  of  peace  unless  we  prepare 
also  to  defend  ourselves.  .  .  .  The  Boy  Scouts  should  be 
sedulously  trained,  so  that  they  can  act  together,  and  at  the  same 
time  each  increase  his  individual  self-reliance.  .  .  . 

The  Boy  Scout  Movement  is  distinctively  an  asset  to  our 
country  for  the  development  of  efficiency,  virility,  and  good 
citizenship.  It  is  essential  that  its  leaders  be  men  of  strong, 
wholesome  character,  of  unmistakeable  devotion  to  our  country, 
its  customs  and  ideals,  as  well  as,  in  soul  and  by  law,  citizens 
thereof,  whose  whole-hearted  loyalty  is  given  to  this  nation  and 
to  this  nation  alone. 

With  all  good  wishes.  Sincerely  Yours, 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 


"  National  defense  is  a  responsibility  in  which  each  of  us  shares  alike. 
"We  will  not  be  prepared  until  every  able-bodied  man  is  trained  in  the  duties 
of  the  citizen-soldier." — MAJOR-GENERAL  LEONARD  WOOD,  U.  S.  Army. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
GARRISON  LIFE  IN  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY 

ARMY  and  Navy  posts  and  stations  are  of  necessity  more  or 
less  independent  of  the  adjacent  territory.  They  are  com- 
pletely supplied  with  all  the  ordinary  equipment  that  goes  to 
make  up  a  municipality.  There  are  the  quarters  and  barracks, 
the  roads,  walks  and  wharves,  the  water  and  sewage  systems, 
the  storehouses  and  stables,  the  fire  department,  the  hospital, 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  the  church,  the  school,  and  Sunday  school, 
the  gymnasium  and  post  exchange,  the  athletic  field  and  drill 
ground,  the  target  range,  the  dairy,  orchard  and  gardens,  the 
woods  and  wood  pile,  railroad  depot,  street  car  line  or  boat  ser- 
vice and  the  guard  house  or  prison  ship  the  prototype  of  the 
town  or  county  jail. 

Our  military  posts  are  large  in  area  compared  to  the  Barracks 
of  European  garrisons  and  require  a  large  expenditure  as  well 
as  a  large  amount  of  non-military  duty  for  their  proper  up- 
keep. 

Each  European  capital  has  its  Army  Corps.  Neither  our 
Capital  nor  our  Metropolis  has  within  a  day's  march  or  several 
days'  march,  a  sufficient  number  of  regular  troops  to  consti- 
tute the  funeral  escort  of  a  President,  Admiral,  or  Major  General. 

Service  in  the  Army  and  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  is  a  very 
serious,  arduous,  businesslike  proposition.  Each  hour  of  the 
day  from  reveille  to  retreat  has  its  allotted  work,  training,  drill, 
study,  or  recreation  all  to  be  accomplished  under  the  watchful 
eye  of  the  Commanding  Officer.  The  bugler  at  headquarters 
or  aboard  ship  announces  the  various  phases  of  the  day's 
routine.  From  retreat  to  tattoo,  call  to  quarters,  taps  and  on 

861 


362  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

to  reveille  throughout  the  night  a  portion  of  the  officers  and 
soldiers  or  sailors  are  performing  that  bugbear  of  the  service, 
the  daily  tour  of  guard  duty. 

The  Army  and  Navy  constitute  the  largest  unit  of  professional 
and  laboring  people  under  one  control  in  the  United  States. 
They  constitute  the  very  bulwark  of  the  nation,  the  one  element 
of  national  strength  and  power  destined  to  protect  and  perpet- 
uate all  other  departments  of  the  Government. 

Those  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  military  and  naval 
service  may  entertain  the  impression  that  discipline  is  harsh 
and  rigorous.  For  the  proper  and  efficient  government  of  any 
military  service  rules  and  regulations,  and  strict  obedience 
thereto,  must  necessarily  be  required.  Without  these  a  military 
organization  would  soon  become  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a 
disorganized  mob. 

The  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  service,  commonly 
known  as  discipline  are  such  as  a  law-abiding,  self-respecting 
man  would  prescribe  for  himself.  They  include  strict  attention 
and  obedience  to  all  lawful  orders;  courteous  deportment  toward, 
and  respect  for,  every  man  in  the  service;  zealous  and  conscien- 
tious performance  of  all  duties;  regular  hours  for  eating,  sleeping, 
working,  recreation,  and  diversion. 

Military  authority  is  exercised  with  firmness,  kindness,  and 
justice.  Each  post  or  station  has  its  guard  house  or  prison 
ship  for  the  restraint  and  punishment  of  those  who  break  the 
rules.  Punishments  conform  to  law  and  follow  offences  as 
promptly  as  circumstances  will  permit.  Superiors  are  forbidden 
to  injure  those  under  their  authority  by  tyrannical  or  capricious 
conduct  or  abusive  language.  Courtesy  among  military  and 
naval  men  is  indispensable  to  discipline.  Respect  to  superiors  is 
not  confined  to  obedience  or  duty  but  is  extended  on  all  occasions. 

Following  the  old  adage  "All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack 
a  dull  boy,"  ample  provision  is  made  in  the  Army  and  Navy 
for  wholesome  pastime  and  recreation.  Athletics  are  encour- 
aged to  an  extreme  degree.  Periods  are  set  aside  for  physical 


U.  S.  Naval  Training  Station,  Great  Lakes,  Illinois 


Saturday  morning  inspection-  at  the  Great  Lakes  Training  Station 


GARRISON  LIFE  363 

exercise  and  sports  of  all  kinds.  Field  sport  days  are  given  over 
entirely  to  athletic  contests  for  which  suitable  prizes  are 
awarded. 

Many  of  these  events  are  of  a  military  nature  and  tend  to 
create  proficiency  and  speed  in  military  tasks  such  as  tent 
pitching,  trench  digging,  wall  scaling,  swimming,  rowing,  riding, 
shooting,  running,  cooking,  boxing,  wrestling,  bayonet  combat 
exercises,  etc.  In  the  Philippines  and  China  these  Field  Day  ex- 
ercises have  come  to  be  known  as  "gymkana." 

Religious  services  are  conducted  by  the  Chaplain  in  the  post 
chapel  or  aboard  ship,  in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  tent  when  hi  the 
field  or  in  the  open  air. 

Each  regiment  has  a  band  of  twenty-eight  experienced  musi- 
cians which  in  addition  to  the  martial  music  incidental  to  review 
and  parades  gives  open-air  concerts  at  stated  intervals  and 
furnishes  music  for  dancing  and  other  pastime  as  occasion 
demands.  Congress  has  forbidden  these  bands  to  furnish  music 
in  competition  with  civilian  musicians. 

Each  organization  has  about  twenty  per  cent,  of  non-com- 
missioned officers,  and  at  each  post  or  naval  station  a  number  of 
quarters  are  provided  for  the  Warrar  Officers  and  superior 
grades  of  non-commissioned  officers. 

Foreign  service  rosters  are  kept  so  that  as  far  as  practicable 
such  service  will  be  equalized.  Pay  proper  is  increased  twenty 
per  cent,  for  enlisted  men  and  ten  per  cent,  for  officers  for  for- 
eign service.  Two  years  hi  the  Philippine  Islands  and  three 
years  in  Hawaii  and  the  Canal  Zone  constitute  a  normal  tour 
of  foreign  duty.  Sea  duty  in  the  navy  is  likewise  increased 
over  shore  duty. 

Various  kinds  of  trade  schools  are  maintained  for  enlisted 
men  of  the  Army  and  Navy.  Common  branches  are  taught 
all  who  volunteer  for  such  instruction.  Much  of  the  Army 
and  Navy  service  is  mechanical,  engineering  or  electrical  and 
offers  excellent  opportunity  for  young  men  to  learn  a  skilled 
trade  or  vocation  while  serving  an  enlistment.  The  Barracks 


364  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

are  well  equipped  with  reading  and  recreation  rooms  and  well 
supplied  with  books  and  current  literature. 

The  Post  Exchange  is  a  cooperative  store  owned  by  the 
organizations ;  the  profits  being  devoted  to  augmenting  the  mess 
or  for  athletic  supplies,  books,  phonographs,  pianos,  interior 
decorations,  etc. 

Under  the  new  army  enlistment  contract  those  who  attain 
satisfactory  proficiency  within  a  year  may  be  discharged.  The 
age  of  enlistment  with  parents  consent  has  been  reduced  to 
sixteen  years  and  the  term  of  enlistment  after  Nov.  1,  1916 
to  three  years  with  the  colors  and  four  years  in  the  reserve. 

The  sale  of  intoxicating  liquor  to  soldiers  or  sailors  at  military 
posts  and  naval  stations  or  aboard  ship  is  prohibited  by  statute. 

The  Government  is  very  liberal  in  granting  furloughs  or 
leaves  of  absence  on  full  pay  to  enlisted  men  and  officers,  aggre- 
gating one  month  each  year.  It  often  happens  that  such 
leave  periods  are  not  availed  of  year  after  year  until  four 
month's  leave  can  be  enjoyed  traveling  in  Europe,  China,  Japan, 
India,  Australia,  Egypt  or  elsewhere. 

The  Army  and  Navy  Relief  Societies  are  organizations  for 
the  purpose  of  supporting,  educating,  and  caring  for  orphans 
in  the  Army  and  Navy  and  destitute  families.  Its  funds  are 
raised  by  voluntary  contribution  and  by  various  benefit  enter- 
tainments. 


"In  time  of  war  the  civilian  as  much  as  the  soldier  is  responsible  for  defeat 
and  disaster.  Battles  are  not  lost  alone  on  the  field;  they  may  be  lost  beneath 
the  Dome  of  the  Capitol,  they  may  be  lost  in  the  Cabinet,  or  they  may  be  lost 
in  the  private  office  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Wherever  they  may  be  lost,  it  is 
the  people  who  suffer  and  the  soldiers  who  die,  with  the  knowledge  and  the 
conviction  that  our  military  policy  is  a  crime  against  life,  a  crime  against  prop- 
erty, and  a  crime  against  liberty.  The  author  has  availed  himself  of  his 
privilege  as  a  citizen  to  expose  to  our  people  a  system  which,  if  not  abandoned, 
may  sooner  or  later  prove  fatal.  The  time  when  some  one  should  do  this  has 
arrived." — GENERAL  EMOKT  UPTON. 


CHAPTER  XLV 

SAFETY  FIRST  FOR  THE  NATION  THROUGH  UNI- 
VERSAL MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  TRAINING 
OF  YOUNG  AMERICA 

AMERICAN  public  sentiment  is  crystalizing  favorably  to 
some  form  of  national  military  training  for  every  able-bodied 
youth  before  he  has  become  an  important  factor  in  the  economic 
life  of  the  nation. 

This  sentiment  is  a  by-product  of  the  campaign  for  Pre- 
paredness which  is  being  waged  throughout  this  ill-defended 
treasure  land  of  peace  and  plenty.  Peace  is  becoming  dearer  to 
the  American  people  both  literally  and  figuratively  as  a  result 
of  the  titanic  struggle  abroad  and  a  realization  of  our  own 
weakness  and  unpreparedness. 

In  seeking  the  cause  and  considering  a  remedy  most  clues 
are  leading  direct  to  the  schoolroom  wherein  we  were  taught, 
and  wherein  our  children  are  now  being  taught,  a  brand  of 
United  States  History  which  we  now  know  to  be  spurious  and 
misleading. 

This  is  due  to  a  lack  of  historical  education  on  the  part  of 
the  masses  who  quit  school  early  in  life  and  to  the  past  and 
present  methods  of  teaching  of  United  States  History  to  those 
who  remain  in  school  until  they  complete  this  subject.  Many 
drop  out  of  school  about  the  time  they  have  completed  the  so- 
called  United  States  History  and  are  ready  to  seriously  take  up 
the  subject  of  mathematics,  literature,  languages,  sciences,  and 
General  History.  The  numerous  instances  in  United  States 

865 


366  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

History  where  raw,  untrained  troops  have  suffered  ignominious 
defeat  are  passed  over  or  entirely  overlooked  as  though  tending 
to  belittle  patriotism  and  love  of  country. 

Is  it  any  wonder  we  are  so  woefully  ignorant  about  the  past 
and  present  security  of  our  own  nation  and  look  more  or  less 
suspiciously  upon  the  utterances  of  the  professional  historians 
of  to-day,  who  are  fearlessly  pointing  out  the  lessons  of  un- 
preparedness  forcefully  taught  by  every  national  conflict?  I 
personally  participated  in  this  crime  against  the  nation  for  five 
years  as  a  teacher  and  principal  of  public  schools  by  teaching 
United  States  History  as  it  was  taught  me,  and  unfortunately, 
as  it  is  being  taught  to-day. 

The  cause  and  remedy  are  undoubtedly  rooted  in  our  public 
educational  system. 

We  must  teach  our  teachers  to  teach  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth  about  the  story  of  these  United 
States.  Then*  pupils  will  become  the  teachers  of  the  next 
generation.  One  generation  of  honest  teaching  of  United  States 
History  will  suffice  to  produce  a  brand  of  American  pa- 
triotism which  will  stand  sponsor  for  adequate,  constant  prepar- 
edness for  war  as  the  most  certain  and  positive  insurance 
against  war.  But  each  generation  must  answer  this  question 
anew. 

A  vital  contributory  cause  of  existing  conditions  is  the  lamen- 
table, and  highly  inexcusable  fact  that  about  seventy  per  cent, 
of  young  America  who  have  not  dropped  out  before  reaching 
the  grammar  grade  in  public  school  do  so  before  reaching  the 
high  school.  Less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  high  school  age  gradu- 
ate from  high  school  and  less  than  five  per  cent,  of  college  age 
are  attending  college.  I  am  purposely  introducing  this  discus- 
sion in  this  volume  as  a  subject  deserving  of  the  most  profound 
and  serious  consideration  as  it  affects  the  question  of  National 
Preparedness — a  purely  educational,  economic,  and  industrial 
question.  The  status  of  education  as  to  attendance  and  mili- 
tary training  is  the  best  gauge  of  the  military  preparedness  of 


SAFETY  FIRST  FOR  THE  NATION  367 

any  nation  and  likewise  the  best  gauge  of  its  industrial  and 
economic  efficiency. 

The  American  people  individually  and  collectively  have 
developed  an  enviable  faculty  of  getting  what  they  want  when 
they  want  it,  but  seldom  without  a  longitudinal  view  of  all  at- 
tending facts  and  circumstances. 

Just  now  the  trend  is  toward  universal  military  and  naval 
training  and  industrial  organization  as  the  panacea  for  all  the 
military  ills  this  Nation  is  heir  to. 

The  State  Legislature  of  New  York  in  1916  passed  a  bill  for 
compulsory  military  training  in  public  schools. 

This  question  is  prominently  before  Congress  through  various 
measures  recently  introduced  and  before  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  and  civic  bodies. 

United  States  Senator  Chamberlain  of  Oregon,  Chairman  of 
the  Senate  Military  Committee,  after  many  conferences  on  this 
subject  and  profound  study  introduced  Senate  Bill  1695  (64th 
Congress)  "to  provide  for  the  military  and  naval  training  of 
the  citizen  forces."  The  provisions  of  this  measure  are  given 
herein  as  a  basis  for  discussion  and  study  of  various  phases  of 
this  vital  question  which  will  probably  be  passed  in  some  form 
by  the  65th  Congress. 

There  is  a  wide  divergence  of  views  as  to  what  form  universal 
military  training  should  take  and  at  what  ages  it  should  be 
required.  The  views  of  Ex-President  Roosevelt  on  this  ques- 
tion as  set  forth  in  a  recent  issue  of  Scouting  are  briefly 
quoted  at  the  end  of  the  Chapter  on  Boy  Scouts. 

The  Chamberlain  Bill  provides  that  able-bodied  male  inhabit- 
ants twelve  to  twenty-three  years  of  age  be  liable  for  military 
and  naval  training  for  a  total  period  of  two  years.  Certain 
exemptions  are  made  on  account  of  religious  belief,  physical  or 
moral  disability,  and  other  sufficient  reasons. 

This  period  comprises  service  in  the  Citizen  Cadet  Corps 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  years  of  age  and  in  the  Citizen  Army 
or  the  Citizen  Navy  at  eighteen  to  twenty-three  years  of  age. 


368  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

TRAINING  IN  THE  CITIZEN  CADET  CORPS 

Between  twelve  and  fourteen  years  ninety  hours  of  training  is 
required  consisting  of  calisthenics,  physical  and  military  drill 
without  arms. 

Between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  ninety  hours  of  military 
training  and  target  practice. 

Between  sixteen  and  eighteen  years  ninety  hours  training  in 
field  exercises  and  target  practice  and  in  addition  ten  whole  days 
in  camp  each  year. 


TRAINING  IN  THE  CITIZEN  ARMY 

Not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  hours  or  twenty  whole 
days  each  year  for  six  years  with  at  least  ten  whole  days  of 
continuous  training  in  camp  each  year. 

The  above  training  may  be  daily  drills  of  one,  three,  or  six 
hours  each. 

The  members  are  organized  into  the  various  armies,  corps, 
or  departments  necessary  for  tactical  organization. 

At  eighteen  years  of  age  members  may  be  transferred  to  the 
Citizens  Navy. 

It  is  contemplated  that  the  prescribed  training  may  be  given 
in  public  and  private  schools,  academies,  colleges,  universities, 
in  the  National  Guard,  or  Naval  Militia,  the  Boy  Scouts  or 
similar  organizations.  Upon  reaching  the  age  of  twenty-four 
years  and  having  completed  this  course  of  training  members 
will  pass  into  the  Citizen  Army  Reserve. 

The  penalty  for  wilful  evasion  of  this  training  is  liability  to  a 
fine  of  $500  and  twenty  days  confinement  and  ineligibility  for 
holding  federal  position. 

There  is  a  severe  penalty  for  employers  who  interfere  in  any 
way  with  a  fulfillment  of  this  service  by  their  employees. 

Wilful  failure  to  attend  drills  is  a  misdemeanor  punishable 
by  a  fine  not  to  exceed  $25. 


SAFETY  FIRST  FOR  THE  NATION  369 

The  United  States  is  to  be  divided  into  training  districts  and 
training  centres  in  charge  of  commissioned  officers. 

The  President  is  authorized  to  mobilize  the  Citizen  Army  and 
Navy  in  tune  of  war  or  threatened  war,  insurrection,  or  re- 
bellion or  when  the  public  safety  demands  it.  For  the  purpose 
of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act  (except  the  Citizen 
Navy)  it  is  provided  that  there  shall  be  established  in  the  War 
Department  a  division  of  the  General  Staff  Corps  which  shall  be 
known  as  the  Citizen  Army  Division  of  the  General  Staff  Corps. 

Since  the  adequateness  of  the  National  Defense  is  both 
directly  and  indirectly  a  product  of  the  educational  system  of 
the  country  it  appears  to  me  that  universal  military  training 
will  be  an  opening  wedge  toward  a  unification  and  standardiza- 
tion of  the  public  educational  systems  of  the  various  states  as  now 
separately  maintained  and  advance  the  movement  for  a  National 
University  at  Washington.  The  status  of  national  education 
is  akin  to  that  of  the  National  Guard  wherein  each  state  has 
its  respective  laws  and  regulations.  Something  drastic  must 
be  done  looking  to  a  greatly  increased  attendance  in  grammar 
and  high  school  as  well  as  enrollment  in  the  National  Guard. 

These  two  institutions,  the  Public  School  and  the  National 
Guard,  should  be  brought  closer  together.  The  appalling  low 
rate  of  attendance  in  public  schools  above  thirteen  years  of  age 
is  attributed  to  family  poverty  and  the  necessity  or  demand  of 
the  parents  for  the  daily  labor  of  the  child.  Going  to  school  in- 
volves a  considerable  expenditure,  and  going  to  college  has  be- 
come almost  prohibitive  to  the  self-supporting  boy  or  girl.  A 
little  outside  pecuniary  assistance  to  such  families  will  bring 
happy  and  far-reaching  results. 

If  there  is  one  nation  on  earth  whose  wealth  and  resources 
are  ample  for  the  liberal  education  of  every  child  that  nation 
is  the  United  States,  but  many  nations  are  doing  more  for  the 
proper  education  and  training  of  their  children,  comparatively 
speaking,  than  is  our  nation.  God  speed  the  day  of  Universal 
Military  and  Naval  Training  for  Young  America. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

*OUR  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES  VS.  OUR 

MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  POWER— NATIONAL 

ASSURANCE  VS.  NATIONAL  INSURANCE 

WHEN  our  relations  with  Sister  Republic  Mexico  became 
strained  in  1913  I  whispered  alarm,  in  essay  form»  as  to  the 
low  rate  of  conversion  of  our  military  and  naval  resources  into 
military  and  naval  power.  Aside  from  being  awarded  the  gold 
medal  prize  of  the  Military  Service  Institution  of  the  United 
States  it  created  no  interest  or  attention.  In  the  meantime,  that 
war  cloud  has  thickened  and  others  have  appeared.  The  omens 
are  very  propitious.  I  am  constrained,  therefore,  to  raise  my 
voice  to  a  higher  pitch  by  closing  this  volume  with  excerpts  from 
this  essay,  with  slight  amendments,  as  a  second  appeal  from  an 
humbled  servant  of  a  vainglorious  Republic  which  presumes 
enviable  leadership  in  Universal  Peace  and  International  Com- 
merce and  in  preaching  and  practising  the  Golden  Rule. 

That  our  military  and  naval  resources  are  practically  un- 
limited is  axiomatic. 

That  our  military  and  naval  power  is  very,  very  limited  is 
enigmatic.  Solving  this  enigma  is  a  vital  function  of  American 
citizenship  and  patriotism. 

The  American  people  appear  not  to  appreciate  that — 

The  euphonious  terms  "military  and  naval  resources"  and 
"military  and  naval  power,"  "national  assurance,"  and  "na- 
tional insurance"  are  not  synonymous  terms;  that — 

Only  a  small  portion  of  our  military  and  naval  resources 

•Excerpts  from  Gold  Medal  Prize  Essay 'of  the  Military  Service  Institution  of  the  United  States, 
1913,  with  Amendments,  By  Captain  Harrison  S.  Kerrick,  C.  A.  C. 

370 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES          371 

have  been  converted  into  military  and  naval  power;  that — 

This  nation  is  over-assured  and  under-insured;  that — 

We  boast  of  being  a  national  power  of  the  first  class,  whereas 
we  are  a  naval  power  of  the  third  class  (1913)  (5th  or  6th  class, 
1916)  and  a  military  power  of  the  eighth  class,  1913  (12th  class, 
1916);  that: 

The  Army  and  Navy  are  the  real  bulwark  of  the  nation — the 
only  dependable  measure  of  national  strength;  that — 

Our  prospective  enemies,  the  maritime  powers  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  maintain  enormous  standing  armies  and  army  re- 
serves ready  for  action;  that — 

We  maintain  a  very  small  standing  army,  by  voluntary  en- 
listments, more  or  less  unready  for  action;  that — 

We  have  no  reserve  army;  that — 

We  have  no  merchant  marine;  that — 

We  have  no  army  transport  service;  that — 

We  have  no  volunteer  army;  that — 

We  have  a  small  militia  force  available  for  home  defense  only; 
that— 

Our  army  is  distributed  throughout  widely  separated  parts 
of  the  world;  that — 

We  have  only  about  37,000  mobile  troops  in  the  United 
States  available  for  emergency;  that  (not  including  Alaska) — 

We  have  5,000  miles  of  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coast  lines,  jetted 
with  seaports,  through  which  the  over-production  of  our  farms 
and  factories  reach  the  foreign  marts;  — 

The  Panama  Canal  is  fast  nearing  completion  by  the  War 
Department ; — 

That  33,000,000  of  our  people  live  within  warship  range  of 
navigable  water,  that — 

Time  is  the  all-important  vital  question  and  factor  in  present- 
day  warfare;  that — 

In  the  next  international  conflict,  as  in  the  last,  victory  will 
probably  rest  with  that  nation  which  can  strike  the  quickest  and 
hardest  blow  the  instant  war  is  declared,  rather  than  with  that 


372  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

nation  which  can  raise  the  largest  army  in  six  months  or  a  year; 
that— 

The  United  States  cannot  strike  a  quick,  hard  blow  to  any 
nation;  that — 

We  are  now  a  peaceful  nation  by  necessity  rather  than  by 
design;  that — 

If  we  would  be  a  nation  of  peace  by  design,  rather  than  by 
necessity,  we  must  first  fortify  our  nation  with  army  and  navy 
bulwarks  of  the  first  rating. 

Then  and  not  until  then  should  we  give  way  to  that  vain- 
glorious boasting  and  hauteur  so  prevalent  amongst  our  pacifists 
who  refer  to  our  national  assurance  as  though  it  were  boundless 
and  who  speak  of  this  Nation's  future  in  positive  declaration  of 
confidence,  guaranty,  surety,  and  utmost  certainty. 

National  blunders,  weaknesses,  defects,  and  the  lessons  of  un- 
preparedness  taught  by  every  war  and  conflict  are  carefully 
omitted  from  text-books  on  United  States  History,  resulting  in 
these  prevailing  distorted  and  dangerous  opinions  as  to  our  na- 
tional strength  and  weakness  and  the  improbability  of  war. 

The  enormity  of  our  export  trade  is  the  wonder  and  envy  of  the 
commercial  world.  This  foreign  commerce  merits  safeguarding 
and  insurance  as  a  great  national  asset.  There  are  those  still 
living  who  remember  the  8-cent  corn  and  wheat,  the  1-cent  cot- 
ton, and  the  dollar  calico  during  the  Civil  War,  incident  to  the  in- 
terruption and  destruction  of  our  foreign  commerce. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  of  "America  for  Americans  "  makes  our 
national  defense  system  of  continental,  yea,  hemispheric,  limi- 
tations and  importance. 

This  Monroe  Doctrine  is  not  a  national  nor  an  international 
law.  It  is  merely  a  policy  of  the  United  States.  A  policy  to 
perpetuate  popular  government  throughout  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere. 

Other  maritime  powers  have  converted  a  comparatively  large 
proportion  of  their  military  and  naval  resources  into  military  and 
naval  power.  They  are  prepared  to  strike  quick,  hard  blows  the 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES  373 

instant  war  is  declared.  They  have  subsidized  transport  ser- 
vices of  fleets  of  the  largest,  speediest  ocean  liners. 

The  best  insurance  against  interruption  of  peace,  progress,  and 
prosperity  is  adequate,  constant,  preparedness  for  war. 

The  time  is  indeed  opportune  and  the  omens  propitious  for  a 
campaign  of  military  education  that  will  enlighten  the  American 
people  on  these  vital  questions  of  national  defense  and  inter- 
national policy. 

The  hour  is  at  hand  for  the  rapid  conversion  of  our  latent  mili- 
tary and  naval  resources  into  military  and  naval  power.  There 
should  be  a  careful  inventory  and  revision  upward  of  our  na- 
tional insurance  policies  to  justify  our  highly  inflated  national 
assurance. 

Optimism  and  egoism  and  pacifism  prevail  to  an  abnormal  and 
dangerous  degree. 

A   NATIONAL   DEFENSE   POLICY 

Congress  has  not  formulated  and  promulgated  an  abiding 
policy  of  national  defense.  The  nearest  approach  has  been  the 
consideration  given  in  committee  to  the  measure  introduced 
from  time  to  time  for  a  "  Council  of  National  Defense,"  to  be 
composed  of  a  limited  number  of  members  of  both  Houses,  the 
Secretaries  of  War  and  Navy,  the  Chief  of  Staff  of  the  Army,  the 
Chief  of  Naval  operations,  and  certain  other  officials  of  the  War 
and  Navy  Departments,  and  civilians. 


THE  MEXICAN  SITUATION 

We  have  not  (1913)  recognized  the  dictatorship  or  the  Con-  • 
stitutionalists  in   Mexico.     We   have   no   ambassador   at   its 
capital.    There  is  and  has  been  provocation  for  intervention. 

The  belief  prevails  that  the  first  act  of  belligerency  on  our 
part  will  be  the  signal  for  a  union  of  all  armed  Mexican  forces 
against  us.  The  public  should  review  the  horrors  of  war  and 


374  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

prepare  for  another  serious  national  shock.  When  war  will 
come  again  no  one  can  tell,  but  that  it  will  come  again  there  is 
every  reason  and  precedent  to  believe.  This  nation  is  unpre- 
pared for  war,  even  with  our  supposedly  weak  and  impoverished 
sister  republic.  At  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Mexico  an  army  of 
250,000  trained  troops  should  be  available. 

Intervention  will  indicate  to  the  world  the  inability  of  the 
Mexican  people  to  govern  themselves — i.  e.,  will  question  their 
capacity  for  popular  government.  This  would  be  a  blow  at 
popular  government,  which  the  Holy  Alliance,  dormant  but 
not  necessarily  dissolved,  might  revive  as  a  fallacy  of  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine. 

The  consequences  to  the  United  States  of  war  with  Mexico 
are  very  grave  indeed. 

The  determination  of  President  Wilson  and  Secretary  of 
State  Bryan,  backed  by  the  strong  anti-intervention  sentiment 
throughout  the  country,  is  a  glowing  tribute  to  the  cause  of 
universal  peace  and  popular  government.  But  war  may  be 
forced  upon  us  despite  our  efforts  to  prevent. 

Let  us  hope  for  a  speedy  return  of  peace  throughout  Mexico 
and  rapid  reconstruction  under  a  strengthened  form  of  popular 
government  that  will  reflect  the  wisdom  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
and  the  diplomacy  exercised  by  our  present  Chief  Executive 
and  Secretary  of  State. 

THE   MILITARY   POLICY   OF  THE   WAR   DEPARTMENT 

After  several  years  of  study  and  deliberation  the  General 
Staff  Corps  recently  (1912)  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  War 
a  policy  for  the  proper  military  mobilization  at  the  outbreak 
of  war  with  a  maritime  power. 

This  report  represents  the  views  of  the  War  Department  and 
the  best  military  thought  of  the  country. 

Briefly,  502,000  trained  soldiers  are  required  for  the  first  line 
of  defense  and  300,000  for  the  second  line.  Total,  802,000. 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES          375 

Our  present  force  of  about  90,000  men  is  distributed  through- 
out the  world — in  China,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Hawaii, 
Alaska,  Canal  Zone,  along  1,800  miles  of  Mexican  border,  in 
division  camp  at  Texas  City,  and  at  over  one  hundred  garri- 
soned army  posts  and  fortifications.  In  time  of  war  the  force 
beyond  the  United  States  could  not  be  returned  home,  nor  could 
it  be  reinforced  from  home  until  after  we  had  secured  command 
of  the  sea. 

At  the  outbreak  of  war  under  the  present  status  there  would 
be  available  in  the  United  States  for  the  first  line  about  37,000 
mobile  troops  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and  field-artillery.  Fifteen 
thousand  coast-artillery  troops  and  100,000  militia  (provided 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  militia  turned  out) — a  total  combatant 
force  of  about  152,000  more  or  less  trained  troops.  Probably 
not  ten  per  cent,  of  this  force  have  ever  been  "under  fire." 
There  would  remain  a  shortage  of  350,000  troops  for  the  first 
line  and  300,000  for  the  second  line— total  shortage,  650,000. 
Of  course  there  would  be  no  second  line  until  the  first  line 
deficiency  had  been  provided,  and  probably  75,000  more  to 
replace  its  casualties  in  the  early  stages  of  war. 

Complete  complements  should  be  provided  for  all  naval  ships 
in  commission. 


STRENGTH   OF  THE  ARMY 

The  enlisted  strength  of  the  Army  should  be  greatly  increased 
on  a  two-year  enlistment  basis,  with  division  camps  of  instruc- 
tion and  reserve  army  features  which  will  assure  within  a  period 
of  five  or  ten  years  an  army  reserve  of  500,000  to  a  million 
trained  young  men  ready  and  obligated  for  service  in  war. 

This  increase  should  be  apportioned  among  all  branches  of 
the  service.  Infantry  and  field  artillery  should  be  given  prefer- 
ence. 

The  invaluable  service  which  our  cavalry  is  performing  on 
the  Mexican  border  has  quieted  opposition  to  the  present 


376  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

strength  of  our  cavalry  forces  and  demonstrated  the  propriety 
of  increasing  rather  than  decreasing  this  arm.  The  Coast 
Artillery  Corps  should  be  increased  sufficiently  to  provide  for 
one  complete  manning  detail  for  all  fortifications  at  home,  at 
Panama,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines,  assuming  that  the  coast 
artillery  of  the  National  Guard  will  be  available  for  service  at 
nearby  forts  in  time  of  war. 


THE   ARMY   RESERVE 

We  Americans  are  primarily  industrious  laborers,  business 
and  professional  men,  strenuously  occupied  in  keeping  the  wolf 
from  the  door  and  providing  a  surplus  for  "rainy  days,"  and  a 
reserve  in  our  declining  years.  We  look  to  the  Government 
officials  to  perform  the  business  of  running  the  Government 
competently  and  prudently. 

The  warnings  of  weakness  and  military  unpreparedness 
sounded  in  the  President's  messages  to  Congress,  backed  up  by 
the  reports  of  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  Navy,  the  Chief  of 
Staff  and  Naval  Operators  and  bureau  chiefs,  are  cried  down 
in  a  tumult  and  tirade  against  "militarism"  and  as  though 
there  were  cries  of  Lions !  Lions !  and  there  were  no  lions. 

The  first  net  profits  of  frugal  business  are  applied  to  fire 
insurance  and  the  ordinary  business  safeguards.  Then  a  "re- 
serve" is  prudently  set  aside  before  declaring  the  coveted  divi- 
dends. 

This  "reserve"  is  the  barometer  that  best  reveals  the  finan- 
cial status.  In  like  manner  will  not  an  army  and  navy  reserve, 
of  say  one  million,  better  measure  and  reflect  the  dignity  and 
stability  of  this  Nation  and  best  prevent  war? 

PAY   THE   MILITIA 

The  National  Government  is  now  receiving  something  for 
nothing  in  the  nature  of  the  valuable  services  rendered  by  the 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES          377 

officers  and  men  of  the  National  Guard  and  Naval  Militia  with- 
out federal  pay.  The  actual  duty  rendered  through  the  organ- 
ization, instruction,  and  drills  of  the  militia  is  as  meritorious  of  a 
proper  compensation  by  the  Federal  Government  as  are  the 
services  of  the  Regular  Army. 

During  the  last  few  years  National  Guard  organizations 
have  been  federalized  and  are  putting  on  new  life  and  efficiency 
through  enforcement  of  the  Dick  Bill.  The  Guard  and  the 
Regular  Army  are  becoming  an  homogeneous  body  of  troops 
that  stimulates  patriotism  and  the  creation  of  a  better  ooinion 
and  increased  appreciation  of  both  forces  by  the  people. 

The  organized  militia  is  worthy  of  its  hire  and  should  not  be 
expected  to  attend  without  drills  at  the  expense  of  its  individual 
members  with  the  attending  sacrifice  to  business,  personal  and 
family  obligations. 

A  militia  pay  bill  should  be  enacted  as  a  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment of  meritorious  service  and  to  stimulate  greater  proficiency. 

ARMY   TRANSPORT   SERVICE 

The  Army  and  Navy  has  no  transport  service  worthy  the 
appellation. 

There  are  on  the  Pacific  a  few  army  transports  for  the  transfer 
of  troops  and  supplies  to  and  from  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines 
in  time  of  peace.  These  ships  do  not  measure  up  to  the  appella- 
tion "Army  Transport  Service"  as  defined  abroad.  At  most 
they  are  small  converted  ocean  liners,  of  low  speed  and  efficiency, 
built  thirty-five  or  forty  years  ago. 

The  Kilpatrick,  Sumner,  Meade,  and  McClellan  are  on  the 
Atlantic  and  have  a  combined  total  capacity  of  two  regiments 
(2,000  men)  with  a  steaming  rate  of  7  to  8  knots. 

In  laying  down  the  design  of  the  Imperator;  the  German 
Emperor,  it  is  said,  charged  his  engineers  with  the  construction 
of  a  ship  that  would  transport  two  army  corps  (48,000  men) 
of  the  German  army  at  twenty-five  knots.  The  Imperator  alone 


378  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

can  carry  about  twenty  times  as  many  troops  as  all  of  our 
Atlantic  army  transports  and  at  three  times  the  speed. 

In  the  spring  of  1913  the  Secretary  of  War  announced  to  the 
presidents  of  a  number  of  colleges  and  universities  his  willing- 
ness to  organize  one  or  more  summer  camps  of  military  in- 
struction for  the  benefit  of  college  students  who  were  desirous  of 
thus  spending  their  summer  vacation.  Ninety  colleges  con- 
tributed one  or  more  students  each.  Two  camps  were  necessary, 
one  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  and  one  at  Monterey,  Cal.  This  camp 
instruction  and  military  training  produced  a  most  salutary  effect 
in  awakening  in  these  college  students  a  sense  of  responsibility 
and  culpability  for  the  conditions  of  our  military  unpreparedness 
apparent  to  all  who  will  take  time  to  inquire.  This  sentiment 
crystallized  in  New  York  City,  November  19,  1913,  at  an  as- 
sembly of  college  presidents  and  camp  students  through  the 
organization  of  the  "Society  of  the  National  Reserve  Corps." 
Princeton,  Harvard,  Yale,  Michigan  University,  Virginia 
Military  Institute,  Columbia  College  of  N.  Y.,  Lehigh  Uni- 
versity, California  University,  and  other  prominent  institutions 
were  represented  by  their  presidents.  These  eminent  educators 
heartily  approved  of  this  innovation  of  the  War  Department  and 
believe  that  the  Student  Military  Camps  of  Instruction  will  be- 
come very  popular  and  a  strong  feature  for  military  advance- 
ment of  the  country. 

The  society's  constitution  is  a  clear-cut,  businesslike  ex- 
position of  the  military  obligations  of  citizenship,  and  a  tre- 
mendous stride  in  the  direction  of  an  awakened  national  con- 
science on  this  question  of  preparedness  for  the  national  defense. 

SEMI-MILITARY   ORGANIZATIONS 

The  National  Rifle  Association  of  the  United  States,  the  Boy 
Scouts  of  America,  Cadet  Corps  and  kindred  semi-patriotic 
organizations,  are  teaching  the  young  men  and  boys  of  the 
country  the  proper  care  and  use  of  the  rifle  and  skill  in  firing  it 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES  379 

and  instilling  a  love  of  country  and  the  flag  and  a  willingness  to 
fight  for  them  if  needs  be. 

The  Navy  League,  the  newly  organized  National  Security 
League  and  the  Affiliated  National  Defense  and  Army  Leagues 
have  taken  up  the  slogan  of  Preparedness  with  vigor  and  pru- 
dence and  with  gratifying  though  not  satisfying  results. 


The  G.  A.  R.,  the  United  Spanish-American  War  Veterans, 
and  patriotic  societies  have  organized  the  Patriotic  Instructors' 
Association,  having  for  a  motto,  "Ducit  Amor  Patria"  (Love  of 
my  country  leads  me).  The  G.  A.  R.  hopes  thereby,  in  its  fast 
declining  years,  to  bequeath  to  a  grateful  republic  an  association 
which  will  stand  sponsor  for  the  teaching  of  patriotism  to  young 
and  old,  and  the  election  of  truly  patriotic  representatives  in 
Congress. 

President  Abraham  Lincoln  as  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  during  the  Civil  War  commanded  more  armed 
forces  than  the  aggregate  forces  commanded  in  peace  and  war 
by  all  other  Presidents  during  the  one  hundre4  and  twenty- 
seven  years  of  our  national  life. 

THE   LINCOLN   DOCTRINE    ENUNCIATED  AT   GETTYSBURG  BATTLE- 
FIELD, JULY  4,  1863,  SHOULD  BE  MEMORIZED  BY 
EVERY  AMERICAN  BOY  AND  GIRL 

"  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  on 
this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to 
the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are 
engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any 
nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We  are 
met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  ded- 
icate a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those 
who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  all 
together  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a 


380  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot 
hallow,  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who 
struggled  here  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  poor  power  to 
add  or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember, 
what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 
It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  un- 
finished work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so 
nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the 
great  task  remaining  before  us; — that  from  these  honored  dead 
we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which  they  gave 
the  last  full  measure  of  devotion; — that  we  here  highly  resolve 
that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain,  that  this  nation, 
under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that  govern- 
ment of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  shall  not 
perish  from  the  earth." 

These  Patriotic  Instructors  labor  to  bring  prominently  before 
the  rising  generation  the  proper  observance  of  national  patriotic 
holidays;  the  reading  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  speech;  the  singing 
of  national  hymns;  the  playing  of  national  airs,  and  a  true  esti- 
mate of  the  national  defense. 

Not  until  Young  America  has  matriculated  in  that  post- 
graduate University  of  Hard  Knocks  for  the  coveted  degree, 
Captain  of  Industry,  does  he  fully  realize  that  the  United  States 
is  a  young  nation  of  nervous,  busy,  non-military,  hysterical 
people,  of  all  shades  and  complexions,  with  no  thought  of  mili- 
tarism and  not  yet  that  great  world  power  and  Utopia  of  his 
schoolboy  days. 

TIME!    TIME!    TIME! 

Given  unlimited  time  the  United  States  can  organize,  equip, 
and  place  in  the  field  ten  million  soldiers,  sailors,  marines,  and 
coast  guards  without  exhausting  its  military  resources.  But 
the  Time !  Time !  Time !  This  element  of  Time  is  the  all-im- 
portant vital  factor  hi  modern  warfare. 


MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  RESOURCES          381 

More  time  than  ever  is  required  to  convert  military  resources 
into  military  and  naval  power.  And  we  only  have  what  time 
there  is.  "A  stitch  in  time  (still)  saves  nine";  "an  ounce  of 
prevention"  is  (still)  worth  16  ounces  of  cure. 

Is  "to  be  forewarned"  no  longer  "to  be  forearmed?" 
Two  years  ago  (1911)  the  International  Peace  Parliament 
selected  Rome,  Italy,  as  its  next  meeting  place,  but  ere  this 
Peace  Congress  had  assembled  in  the  erstwhile  peaceful  country, 
behold!  Italy  and  Turkey  were  engaged  in  a  ferocious  war  hi 
Northern  Africa.  The  Italian  delegates  through  patriotism  and 
devotion  to  their  country  refrained  from  participation  hi  this  so- 
called  peace  conclave. 


CONCLUSION 

The  Palace  of  Peace  endowed  by  a  naturalized  American  has 
been  dedicated  by  a  World  Congress  within  a  twelve-month 
(1912)  almost  within  sight  and  sound  of  that  terrible  Balkan 
War.  The  International  Congress  of  Law  recently  convened  in 
England.  Arbitration  treaties  are  being  ratified  and  are  pend- 
ing between  practically  all  of  the  nations  of  the  world.  But  let 
us  not  mistake  the  dawn  for  the  day  of  universal  peace.  We 
must  still  keep  our  lamps  trimmed  and  filled. 

The  day  of  restricted  battleship  construction  and  disarma- 
ment as  foreshadowed  by  the  proposed  (by  England)  inter- 
national naval  holiday  is  not  at  hand  while  England  has  forty- 
two,  Germany  twenty-six  and  the  United  States,  France,  and 
Japan  each  only  twelve  battleships  of  the  highest  rating. 

Our  Nation  is  growing  by  leaps  and  bounds.  It  should  be 
safeguarded  upon  the  same  business  principles  by  which,  as 
individuals,  we  increase  our  life  and  fire  insurance  policies  and 
as  business  institutions  establish  a  "reserve"  and  other  form  of 
insurance  and  safeguards. 

Our  national  debt  is  a  mere  pittance;  scarcely  more  than  the 
municipal  debt  of  the  city  of  Greater  New  York. 


382  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

Let  us  not  be  lulled  to  sleep  by  the  siren  of  universal  peace 
and  foreign  and  domestic  commercial  activities  and  competition 
and  permit  OUT  national  insurance  policies  to  lapse. 

It  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  present-day  warfare  is 
scientific,  technical,  mathematical,  and  requires  a  more  in- 
telligent, better-trained  personnel  than  ever  before. 

This  is  the  day  of  military  aeroplanes,  dirigible  balloons  in 
which  the  United  States  recently  led  but  now  trails  all  the 
nations.  This  is  the  day  of  the  submarine  mine,  the  submarine 
boat,  the  19,000-yard  mortar,  the  16-Inch  rifle.  This  is  the 
hour  of  the  mysterious  warcraft  controlled  by  radio  from  shore, 
(John  Hays  Hammond's,  Jr.,  radio  controlled  boat).  This  is 
the  day  of  the  high  velocity  smokeless  powder,  breech-loading 
magazine  and  automatic  rifle  and  the  light-weight  automatic, 
air-cooled,  flameless,  recoilless  machine  gun  that  can  be  fired 
800  times  per  minute  from  an  aeroplane  or  elsewhere. 

Human  nature  has  not  changed  very  much  after  all. 

"Blood  is  (still)  thicker  than  water." 

Culpability  for  the  consequences  of  future  warfare  involving 
the  United  States  rests  primarily  upon  the  American  people 
pending  the  creation  of  a  Council  of  National  Defense  and  the 
promulgation  of  a  National  Defense  Policy. 

When  such  a  policy  has  been  promulgated  and  developed  to 
reasonable  efficiency,  culpability  can  be  transferred  to  Congress 
and  the  Army  and  Navy.  Then  and  not  till  then  may  the 
euphonious  terms  Military  and  Naval  Resources  and  Military 
and  Naval  Power;  National  Assurance  and  National  Insurance 
be  considered  synonymous  terms. 

God  speed  that  day. 


"I  cannot  help  plead  to  my  countrymen,  at  every  opportunity,  to  cherish 
all  that  is  manly  and  noble  in  the  military  profession,  because  Peace  is  enervat- 
ing and  no  man  is  wise  enough  to  foretell  when  soldiers  may  be  in  demand 
again." — GENERAL  SHERMAN. 


FLAG  DAY  PROCLAMATION  OF  PRESIDENT  WILSON 

"My  fellow  countrymen:  Many  circum- 
stances have  recently  conspired  to  turn  our 
thoughts  to  a  critical  examination  of  the 
conditions  of  our  national  life,  of  the  influ- 
ences which  have  seemed  to  threaten  to  divide  us  in  interest 
and  sympathy,  of  forces  within  and  forces  without  that  seemed 
likely  to  draw  us  away  from  the  happy  traditions  of  united 
purpose  and  action  of  which  we  have  been  so  proud. 

"It  has  therefore  seemed  to  me  fitting  that  I  should  call 
your  attention  to  the  approach  of  the  anniversary  of  the  day 
upon  which  the  flag  of  the  United  States  was  adopted  by  the 
Congress  as  the  emblem  of  the  Union,  and  to  suggest  to  you 
that  it  should,  this  year  and  in  the  years  to  come,  be  given 
special  significance  as  a  day  of  renewal  and  reminder,  a  day 
upon  which  we  should  direct  our  minds  with  a  special  desire  of 
renewal  to  thoughts  of  the  ideals  and  principles  of  which  we 
have  sought  to  make  our  great  Government  the  embodiment. 
"I,  therefore,  suggest  and  request  that  throughout  the  nation, 
and,  if  possible,  in  every  community,  the  14th  day  of  June  be 
observed  as  Flag  Day,  with  special  patriotic  exercises,  at  which 
means  shall  be  taken  to  give  significant  expression  to  OUT 
thoughtful  love  of  America,  our  comprehension  of  the  great 
mission  of  liberty  and  justice  to  which  we  have  devoted  our- 
selves as  a  people,  our  place  in  the  history,  and  our  enthusiasm 
for  the  political  program  of  the  nation,  our  determination  to 
make  it  greater  and  purer  with  each  generation  and  our  re- 
solution to  demonstrate  to  all  the  world  its  vital  union  hi  senti- 
ment and  purpose,  accepting  only  those  as  true  compatriots 
who  feel  as  we  do  the  compulsion  of  this  supreme  allegiance. 

883 


384  MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  AMERICA 

"Let  us  on  that  day  re-dedicate  ourselves  to  the  nation,  'one 
and  inseparable,'  from  which  every  thought  that  is  not  worthy 
of  our  fathers'  first  vows  of  independence,  liberty,  and  right 
shall  be  excluded,  and  in  which  we  shall  stand  with  united 
hearts  for  an  America  which  no  man  can  corrupt,  no  influence 
draw  away  from  its  ideals,  no  force  divide  against  itself,  a  nation 
signally  distinguished  among  all  the  nations  of  mankind  for 
its  clear,  individual  conception  alike  of  its  duties  and  its  privi- 
leges, its  obligations,  and  its  rights." 


THE  END 


GLOSSARY    OF    MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    TERMS 


Abatis.  In  field  fortification,  rows  of 
felled  trees,  with  the  smaller  branches 
lopped  off,  and  the  others  sharpened  and 
turned  toward  the  enemy. 

Adjutant.  A  military  officer  whose  duty 
it  is  to  assist  the  commanding  officer  of  a 
regiment,  artillery  district,  battalion, 
squadron,  garrisoned  post,  or  detach- 
ment of  troops. 

Adjutant-General.  The  military  secre- 
tary of  a  general  officer.  He  publishes 
orders,  keeps  records,  and  attends  to  mili- 
tary correspondence. 

Adjutant-General's  Department.  The 
corps  of  officers  comprising  the  Adjutants- 
General. 

Admiral.  The  highest  ranking  officer  of 
the  Navy.  He  receives  a  salute  of  17 
guns. 

Advance  Guard.  A  portion  of  a  body  of 
troops,  inarching  in  front  of  the  main 
column,  to  insure  its  safety  against  sur- 
prise. 

Aide-de-camp.  A  confidential  officer  se- 
lected by  a  general  to  assist  him  in  his 
duties. 

Ammunition.  Explosives  and  projec- 
tiles for  charging  guns  of  any  sort.  Fixed 
Ammunition  is  that  in  which  cartridge 
case  and  projectile  are  united;  used  in 
small  arms,  machine  guns,  and  small 
caliber  rapid-fire  guns. 

Ardois  Signals.  A  system  of  signaling 
in  which  a  set  of  electric  lanterns  ar- 
ranged vertically  on  the  forestay  of  a 
vessel  or  staff  is  used  to  send  alphabetical 
signals.  The  globes  of  the  lanterns  are 
half  red  and  half  white  and  the  letters 
are  formed  by  the  different  combinations 
of  the  two  colors. 

Armament.  Offensive  weapons  with 
which  the  Army  and  Navy  are  equipped 
such  as  guns,  mortars,  torpedoes,  and 
their  tubes,  mines,  and  aircraft  guns. 

Armor.  The  protection  afforded  the  sides 
and  decks  of  warships.  It  is  classified 
as  wrought  iron,  compound,  all  steel, 
and  face-hardened  armor.  This  armor 
is  thickest  along  the  middle  portion  of  the 
warship  and  near  the  water-line  and  tap- 
ers at  the  ends.  Gun  protection  consists 
of  shields,  turrets,  and  side  plates  de- 
signed to  protect  the  gun  crew. 


Army.  The  organized  land  forces  of  a 
nation,  including  its  war  material;  in  a 
limited  sense,  any  portion  of  its  forces  of 
strength  greater  than  a  division  and  act- 
ing independently. 

Army  Corps.  One  of  the  primary  sub- 
divisions of  an  army  and  its  strategic 
unit.  Usually  composed  of  two  or  three 
divisions  of  infantry,  a  brigade  of  cav- 
alry, the  corps  artillery,  a  battalion  of 
engineers,  the  ammunition  train,  tele- 
graphers, and  signalers,  the  aero  contin- 
gent and  the  field  hospital. 

Arsenal.  An  establishment  in  which 
war  material  is  manufactured  or  stored. 
The  principal  arsenals  are:  Watervliet 
(West  Troy,  N.  Y.),  Springfield  (Mass.), 
Frankfort  (Philadelphia),  Rock  Island 
(111.),  and  Dover  (N.J.). 

Artillery-  Movable  and  fixed  cannon,  and 
troops  trained  in  their  use.  It  comprises 
coast,  fprtification,  siege,  field,  horse,  and 
mountain  artillery. 

Artillery  School.  For  officers  of  the  artil- 
lery branches  at  Fort  Monroe  (Va.),  and 
Fort  Sill  (Okla.). 

Articles  of  War.  An  act  of  Congress; 
approved  April  10,  1806,  to  establish 
rules  for  the  government  of  the  Army. 
They  form  part  of  the  Army  Regulations. 

Automatic  Machine  Guns.  Rapid-fire 
guns  in  which  the  force  of  recoil  serves 
to  load  and  fire  the  piece. 

Ballistics.  That  branch  of  the  science 
of  gunnery  which  treats  of  the  flight  of 
projectiles. 

Bandoleer.  A  small  arms  ammunition 
belt,  consisting  of  six  pockets,  each  con- 
taining two  clips  or  ten  rounds.  Worn 
over  one  shoulder  and  under  the  opposite 
arm. 

Battalion.  A  unit  of  organization  of  in- 
fantry or  field  artillery.  In  infantry 
consisting  of  four  companies,  in  artillery 
from  two  to  four  field  batteries. 

Battery.  In  the  navy  all  the  guns  on  one 
side  of  the  ship,  as  starboard  battery  or 
port  battery.  In  field  artillery,  its  unit 
of  combat,  consisting  of  four  pieces  with 
their  caissons,  three  to  each  piece.  In 
fortifications,  the  entire  structure  erected 
for  the  emplacing,  protection,|and  service 
of  one  or  more  guns  or  mortars,  together 


885 


386 


GLOSSARY 


with  the  pieces  so  protected.  The  guns 
of  a  battery  are  of  the  same  size  and 
power,  and  are  grouped  with  the  object 
of  concentrating  their  fire  on  a  single 
target  and  of  their  being  commanded  by 
a  single  individual. 

Battle  Chart.  A  chart  used  in  battle. 
fire,  and  mine  command  stations  which 
covers  their  respective  areas.  It  shows 
the  channels  and  different  depths  of 
water  passable  by  the  several  types  of 
war  vessels.  It  also  shows  the  sectors 
of  fire  of  the  several  batteries  in  the 
particular  command,  and  in  case  of  mine 
commands  the  position  of  the  fields,  etc. 
It  indicates  the  penetration  in  Krupp 
armor  for  each  1,000  yards  of  range 
for  the  several  classes  of  armament. 

Battle  Flag.  The  national  flag  (garrison 
flag)  displayed  at  a  seacoast  or  lake  fort 
at  the  beginning  of  and  during  an  en- 

fagement,  whether  by  day  or  night. 
t  is  also  flown  from  the  mainmast  of 
vessels  engaged. 

Battleship.  A  large  vessel  protected 
by  heavy  armor  and  carrying  a  heavy 
armament,  including  guns  of  largest 
caliber.  See  Cruiser  and  Dreadnought. 

Bells.  The  nautical  method  of  dividing 
time.  The  twenty-four  hours  is  divided 
into  six  parts,  beginning  at  twelve  o'clock 
midnight.  In  each  division  are  eight 


half  hours  which  are  numbered  by  the 
successively    increasing    strokes    of    the 
ship's  bell.    Eight  bells  are  struck  at 
' 


twelve,  four,  and  eight  o'clock  respec- 
tively. -  One  bell  is  half-past  twelve,  four, 
and  eight,  and  so  on. 

Bivouac.  A  temporary  place  of  repose  for 
troops,  in  which  they  are  sheltered  by 
shelter-tents,  or  improvised  shelter  of 
any  kind,  or  sleep  in  the  open  air. 

Bomb.  A  missile,  also  called  grenade, 
that  explodes  on  impact,  used  in  trench 
combat  or  is  dropped  from  aircraft. 

Bomb-proof.  A  military  structure  to 
resist  the  penetration  of  shell,  constructed 
of  metal  or  of  concrete  and  earth,  to 
protect  magazines  or  stores,  or  to  shelter 
troops. 

Brigade.  An  army  unit  comprising  usu- 
ally three  regiments. 

Brigadier-General.  A  general  officer 
commanding  a  brigade,  and  ranking  next 
below  a  major-general  and  next  above  a 
colonel.  He  receives  a  salute  of  eleven 
guns. 

Buoy.  A  floating  object  moored  to  the 
bottom,  used  for  temporarily  marking 
the  position  of  mines,  channels,  and  target 
positions. 

Caliber.  The  diameter  of  the  bore  of  a 
gun  measured  in  inches,  or  of  a  small 
arm  in  lOOths  of  an  inch.  Also  used  to 
express  the  length  of  cannon;  e.g.,  a 


12-inch  gun  42  calibres  long  would  be 
42  feet  long;  a  6-inch  gun  52  calibres  long 
would  be  26  feet  long. 

Cannon.  A.  general  term  for  artillery 
weapons  and  firearms  not  carried  in  the 
hands.  Guns  are  long  (generally  from 
30  to  50  calibres),  have  flat  trajectories, 
and  are  used  for  low-angle  fire  (less  than 
15  degrees),  with  high  velocities  (from 
2,000  to  3,000  foot  seconds,  about). 
Mortars  are  short  (generally  about  10 
calibres),  and  are  used  for  high-angle  fire 
(from  45  to  70  degrees),  with  low  velocities 
(from  550  to  1,300  f.  s.,  about).  Howit- 
zers are  intermediate  between  guns  and 
mortars. 

Captain.  In  the  army,  the  officer  who 
commands  a  company,  battery,  or  troop; 
in  the  navy,  the  officer  who  commands  a 
ship. 

Castrametation.  The  art  or  act  of  en- 
camping, or  the  act  of  marking  or  laying 
out  a  camp. 

Charge.  The  charge  consists  of  the  pow~ 
der  and  the  projectile.  The  powder  for 
all  large  cannon,  to  include  4.7-inch  guns, 
is  enclosed  in  silk  or  serge  bags  and  is 
separate  from  the  projectile.  In  gung 
of  greater  caliber  than  six  inches  it  is 
put  up  in  two  or  more  sections  or  bags. 
For  small  calibers  the  projectile  and 
powder  are  in  cartridge  form,  called 
fixed  ammunition. 

Chief  of  Staff.  The  chief  9f  the  General 
Staff  Corps,  the  commanding  general  of 
the  army.  Military  adviser  to  the  Sec-- 
retary  of  War. 

Coast  Defense.  The  military  and  naval 
dispositions  and  operations  necessary 
to  resist  a  naval  attack  on  any  part  of 
the  coastline. 

Coast  Guard.  The  Revenue  Cutter  and 
Life  Saving  Service  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment, and  which  in  time  of  war  or 
emergency  becomes  a  part  of  the  Navy. 

Collier.  A  special  type  of  vessel  designed 
for  supplying  coal  to  war  vessels  at  sea. 
The  latest  type  are  equipped  with  cable- 
ways  capable  of  coaling  a  vessel  even  in 
a  heavy  sea. 

Cossack  Post.  A  group  of  four  men  sub- 
stituted for  the  picket  and  its  sentinels 
in  the  ordinary  outpost  system.  Each 
post  has  one  man  on  the  watch,  posted 
only  a  few  yards  out  in  front.  Is  more 
economical  of  men  and  less  fatiguing  than 
the  ordinary  system. 

Cruiser.  Generally  a  war  vessel,  capable 
of  making  long  voyages,  and  which  is 
utilized  for  the  ordinary  duties  of  a  navy 
in  time  of  peace.  Light  Cruiser:  one 
whose  vitals  are  protected  by  a  light 
armored  deck  and  whose  gun  positions 
may  have  light  protection.  Displace- 
ment varies  from  1,500  to  5,000  tons  and 
speed  from  16  to  30  or  more  knots,  ac- 


GLOSSARY 


387 


cording  to  various  designs.  Scout:  a 
light  cruiser  in  which  protection  and 
armament  is  considerably  reduced  to 
allow  for  large  fuel  storage  space  and 
machinery  installation  of  great  power  to 
give  as  high  a  speed  as  possible.  Ar- 
mored Cruiser:  one  protected  by  moder- 
ately heavy  armor  on  sides,  etc.,  armed 
with  heavy  guns,  8-inch  to  12-inch  as  a 
rule,  and  capable  of  high  speed,  18  to 
22  knots,  approximately.  Armament  is 
usually  mixed  as  in  the  pre-dreadnaught 
battleship  from  which  this  class  differs 
in  that  its  armor  and  armament  is  lighter 
and  the  speed  greater.  Displacement 
varies  from  about  9.000  to  16,000  tons. 

Department.  A  military  geographical 
sub-division  of  the  country,  the  troops 
within  its  limits  being  commanded  by 
the  Department  Commander  (a  brigadier 
or  major  general).  There  are  5  depart- 
ments: (1)  Department  of  the  East,  (2) 
Department  of  the  Lakes,  (3)  Southern 
Department,  (4)  Western  Department, 
(5)  Philippines. 

Destroyers.     See  Torpedo  Craft. 

Disappearing  Carriage.  A  gun  Carriage 
so  constructed  that  it  will  carry  its  gun 
to  a  firing  position  above  the  parapet 
and  upon  discharge  carry  it  back  to  the 
original  loading  position  behind  the 
parapet. 

Displacement.  The  quantity  of  water 
displaced  by  a  ship,  the  weight  of  the  dis- 
placed liquid  being  equal  to  that  of  the 
displacing  body. 

Division.  A  unit  of  organization,  usually 
comprising  two  brigades  of  infantry,  a 
regiment  of  cavalry,  and  a  battalion  of 
artillery,  besides  engineers,  hospital  corps, 
detachment  and  train.  A  cavalry  divi- 
sion comprises  two  or  three  cavalry  regi- 
ments with  a  battalion  of  horse  artillery 
and  the  necessary  train. 

Dreadnaught.  These  vessels  have  a 
main  battery  of  all  big  guns  (11  inches  or 
more  in  caliber)  and  no  intermediate 
battery.  The  secondary  or  torpedo 
defense  battery  is  composed  of  guns  of 
3-inch  to  5-inch  caliber.  Of  18,000  tons 
displacement  or  more  and  a  speed  of  at 
least  18  knots.  Pre-Dreadnaughl:  A 
battleship,  usually  not  over  16,000  tons, 
having  a  mixed  battery — main  battery 
of  heavy  guns,  8-inch  or  above;  inter- 
mediate battery  of  4-inch  to  7-inch 
inclusive,  and  secondary  battery  of 
small  guns  less  than  4-inch.  Super- 
Dieadnaught:  A  term  applied  to  later 
vessels  of  Dreadnaught  type  where 
there  are  more  than  10  big  guns  in  the 
main  battery,  or  a  very  large  displace- 
ment, 25,000  tons  or  more,  and  a  speed 
of  from  21  to  25  knots.  In  these  the 
secondary  or  torpedo  defense  battery  is 
usually  of  5-inch  or  6-inch  caliber. 


Endurance  of  Cannon.  The  life  of  a 
cannon  or  the  number  of  times  a  piece  is 
capable  of  being  fired  before  relining  is 
necessary.  The  life  of  heavy  guns  is 
assumed  to  be  approximately  250  service 
shots. 

Explosives.  The  general  subject  of  ex- 
plosives has  in  recent  years  undergone 
complete  readjustment.  The  primary  ex- 
plosive, gunpowder,  made  by  the  mechan- 
ical union  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  char- 
coal, has  been  almost  entirely  superseded 
by  chemical  compounds.  Chemical  ex- 
plosives are  derived  from  the  detonating 
mixtures  originally  devised  to  set  the 
explosion  of  gunpowder  in  course  from 
the  compound  nitroglycerine  and  from 
the  reaction  of  chemicals  on  vegetable 
fibre,  of  which  gun-cotton  is  a  type. 
Explosives  are  divided  into  two  princi- 
pal classes,  the  detonators,  which  are 
transformed  into  gases  instantaneously 
and  without  the  presence  of  exterior 
pressure  and  those  other  compounds  which 
require  to  be  burned  in  a  confined  space 
in  order  to  develop  their  force. 

File.  In  infantry  a  file  is  two  men,  the 
front  rank  man  and  his  rear  rank  man, 
the  front  rank  man  is  the  file  leader. 
When  the  rear  rank  man  is  missing  it  is 
called  a  blank  file. 

File  Closers.  Officers  and  non-commis- 
sioned men  posted  in  rear  of  the  line  to 

-  maintain  order  and  see  that  instructions 
are  properly  followed. 

Furlough.  Written  permission,  signed  by 
the  commanding  officer,  allowing  absence 
for  the  stated  time.  On  return  the 
Quartermaster  issues  money  equivalent 
to  rations  not  used  while  away. 

Fuse.  A  mechanical  firing  device  used  to 
ignite  or  detonate  a  bursting  charge  in  a 
projectile. 

General.  An  officer  of  the  army,  ranking 
next  above  a  colonel,  includimg  brigadier, 
major,  and  lieutenant  generals  and  gen- 
erals proper. 

General  Staff.  A  corps  of  selected  offi- 
cers, charged  with  the  duty  of  studying 
foreign  armies  and  possible  theatres  of 
war,  and  of  strategic  questions  in  gen- 
eral, and  preparation  of  plans  for  na- 
tional defense. 

Guard.  A  detachment  of  men,  detailed 
daily  in  camp  or  garrison,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  public  property,  to  guard  prisoners 
and  to  insure  order.  The  guard  is 
divided  into  three  reliefs,  each  on  duty 
for  two  hours  in  turn  and  off  four  hours, 
and  posting  its  own  sentinels. 

Guard  Mounting.  A  ceremony  for 
forming  the  guard  before  it  enters  on  its 
duties  for  the  day. 

Laws  of  War.  Laws  governing  the  con- 
duct of  war  among  civilized  nations.  They 
relate  principally  to  the  treatment  of 


388 


GLOSSARY 


prisoners,  spies,  traitors,  and  private 
property,  and  to  blockades,  rights  of 
capture,  censorship,  etc.  They  have  either 
been  established  by  long  usage  or  agreed 
to  by  international  conventions. 

Lieutenant.  A  company  officer,  ranking 
below  a  captain.  There  are  two  grades, 
First  and  Second  Lieutenant,  the  former 
being  senior  in  rank. 

Lieutenant-Colonel.  A  field  officer  rank- 
ing next  below  a  colonel. 

Machine  Guns.  Guns  of  one  or  more 
barrels  using  fixed  ammunition  and  pro- 
vided with  mechanism  for  continuous 
loading  and  firing.  The  mechanism 
may  be  operated  by  man  power  or  by  the 
force  of  recoil.  They  are  designed  to 
deliver  a  strong,  rapid,  continuous,  and 
accurate  fire  of  small  projectiles. 

Major.  A  field  officer  ranking  next  below 
a  lieutenant-colonel,  and  next  above  a 
captain.  His  proper  command  is  a 
battalion  in  infantry  and  field  artillery, 
er  squadron  in  cavalry. 

Major-General.  An  officer,  ranking  next 
above  a  brigadier-general,  commanding 
a  division.  He  receives  a  ..salute  of  13 
guns. 

March.  The  movement  of  a  body  of 
troops  from  one  point  to  another,  whether 
on  foot  or  mounted.  Infantry  marches 
ordinarily  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  miles 
a  day,  but  this  may  be  increased  to  forty 
miles  in  thirty  hours;  cavalry  or  horse 
artillery  can  accomplish  thirty  to  thirty- 
eight  miles  a  day;  field  artillery  about 
twenty-five  miles. 

Marine  Corps.  A  semi-independent 
branch  of  the  navy,  originally  intended 
for  guard  and  police  duty  aboard  ship, 
now  constituting  an  elastic  and  quickly 
mobilized  force  for  infantry  duty  in 
foreign  waters.  Has  no  permanent 
company  or  regimental  formation,  but 
is  organized  as  need  arises  into  battalions. 
Is  generally  subdivided  into  small  marine 
guards  for  each  of  the  vessels  in  commis- 
sion. Is  commanded  by  a  major-general 
and  has  its  own  commissary  and  pay  or- 
ganization. 

Mine  Planter.  A  seagoing  tug  150  feet 
in  length  and  about  30  feet  beam,  haying 
large  deck  space  forward  and  but  little 
rigging.  It  is  equipped  with  booms, 
winches,  davits,  catheads,  triplex  blocks, 
etc.,  necessary  in  handling  and  planting 
assembled  mines. 

Mobile  Torpedo.  A  cigar -shaped  metal 
case  containing  a  charge  of  high  explosive 
with  firing  device,  intended  to  run  under 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  attack 
the  hull  of  an  enemy  vessel.  There  are 
two  classes,  dirigible  and  automatic. 
The  former  is  controlled  by  electrical 
or  other  cables;  the  latter  carry  their  own 
propelling  agent  and  keep  a  given  direc- 


tion automatically.  The  Whitehead  tor- 
pedo, of  the  latter  type,  is  now  made 
of  steel  or  of  phosphor  bronze,  21 
inches  in  diameter  and  15  feet  long, 
divided  into  compartments  and  carrying 
a  large  explosive  charge  forward  which 
is  fused  to  explode  on  impact.  They 
may  be  launched  from  tubes  below  the 
surface  or  above  water. 

Mobilization.  The  transformation  of 
an  army  from  its  peace  to  its  war  footing. 
Theoretically  mobilization  plans  are 
fully  prepared  in  time  of  peace,  so  that, 
at  the  outbreak  of  war,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  issue  the  requisite  orders  for 
calling  in  the  reserves  and  for  the  new 
organization  of  the  forces  at  designated 
concentration  camps. 

Officer.  A  commissioned  officer  of  the 
army  or  navy.  Naval  officers  and  their 
corresponding  rank  with  the  army  are: 
Admiral  with  the  commanding  general, 
rear-admiral  with  major-general,  captain 
with  colonel,  commander  with  lieutenant- 
colonel,  lieutenant-commander  with 
major,  lieutenant  with  captain,  lieuten- 
ant (junior  grade)  with  first  lieutenant, 
ensign  with  second  lieutenant.  Non- 
Commissioned  Officer:  an  enlisted  man, 
appointed  by  a  regimental  commander 
to  the  grade  of  sergeant  or  corporal. 
The  corresponding  term  in  the  navy  is 
Petty  Officer. 

Ordnance.  The  war  material  which  per- 
tains to  the  armament,  its  use  and  its 
care;  such  as  guns,  carriages,  small  arms, 
soldiers'  and  horse  equipments,  ammuni- 
tion, gun  cleaning  material,  etc. 

Outguards.  Small  detachments  sent  to- 
ward the  enemy;  may  be  of  three  classes: 
Pickets,  Sentry  Squads,  or  Cossack  Posts 

Pace.  Thirty  inches,  the  length  of  the  full 
step  when  marching  in  quick  time — 120 
to  the  minute. 

Periscope.  An  apparatus  used  on  the 
Holland  type  of  submarine  boat  for 
observation,  sighting,  and  steering.  A 
similar  apparatus  used  on  the  Lake  type 
of  submarine  is  called  the  Omniscope. 

Proving  Grounds.  Government  ground 
used  for  testing  cannon,  powder,  pro- 
jectiles, explosives,  armor,  and  other 
ordnance.  Sandy  Hook  (N.  J.)  Army, 
and  Indian  Head  (Md.)  Navy. 

Rapid-fire  Gun.  A  single-barrel  gun 
provided  with  breech  mechanism,  mount- 
ing, and  facilities  for  loading,  aiming,  and 
firing  with  great  rapidity.  The  breech 
mechanism  is  operated  by  a  single  motion 
of  the  handle  or  lever.  The  smaller 
calibres  use  fixed  ammunition. 

Regiment.  A  military  unit  of  organiza- 
tion, consisting  normally  of  three  battal- 
ions, with  its  proper  regimental  staff. 

Retirement.  The  placing  of  an  officer  or 
soldier  on  the  retired  list;  that  is,  out  of 


GLOSSARY 


389 


service,  with  reduced  pay  (seventy-five 
per  cent,  of  his  pay  on  the  active  list). 
Officers  are  retired  for  disability  (wounds, 
sickness,  etc.),  or  by  reason  of  age  (64 
years),  or  on  their  own  application  after 
long  service. 

Salute.  (1)  A  mark  of  courtesy  or  com- 
pliment. The  salute  with  the  hand,  the 
rifle,  or  the  sabre  (or  sword).  (2)  An 
honor  to  a  superior  by  firing  guns,  sound- 
ing drum  or  bugle  calls,  etc.,  presenting 
arms,  etc.  The  President  receives  a 
salute  of  21  guns;  the  Vice-President, 
19  guns;  the  Secretary  of  War,  17  guns; 
Admiral  or  General,  17  guns;  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  War,  15  guns;  the  Lieut.- 
General,  15  guns;  major-generals,  13  guns, 
brigadier-generals,  11  guns.  (3)  National 
Salute.  A  salute  of  21  guns.  Also  the 
salute  to  a  foreign  national  flag.  When 
foreign  warships  salute  their  own  flag  in  a 
United  States  port,  a  salute  of  the  same 
number  of  guns  as  those  fired  by  the  war- 
ship is  returned  by  the  nearest  fort.  (4) 
The  Salute  to  the  Union  is  one  gun  for  each 
state. 

School  Ships.  The  states  of  Massachu- 
setts, Pennsylvania,  and  New  York 
maintain  ships  of  instruction  for  the 
education  of  young  men  in  navigation. 
Vessels  are  loaned  by  the  United  States 
Government  and  naval  officers  are  de- 
tailed as  instructors. 

Secret  Code.  The  naval  code  used  be- 
tween ships  of  the  nation  is  carefully 
guarded,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  com- 
mander to  destroy  his  copy  before  cap- 
ture. In  addition  there  is  a  secret  naval 
telegraph  cable  and  wireless  code  on  an 
elaborate  basis,  used  for  all  confidential 
messages. 

Searchlight.  A  high-power  electric  arc 
light,  with  18  to  60  inch  projector,  used 
for  night  illumination.  The  maximum 
effective  illuminating  range  on  a  clear 
night  is  approximately  8,000  yards. 

Shell.  A  steel  or  cast-iron  projectile,  the 
centre  of  which  is  hollowed  to  be  filled 
with  the  bursting  charge. 

Shrapnel.  A  projectile  composed  of  a 
number  of  spherical  balls  enclosed  in  a 
cast-iron  case,  with  a  bursting  charge  in 
either  point  or  base  to  scatter  the  missiles, 

Signal  Corps.  A  branch  of  the  army, 
which  has  charge  of  the  signal,  telephone, 
telegraph,  balloon,  and  aeroplane  service. 


Squadron.  (1)  A  unit  of  organization  of 
cavalry,  composed  of  four  troops.  (2) 
In  the  navy,  a  division  of  a  fleet,  or  a 
small  number  of  vessels  acting  together. 

Station.  The  allotted  cruising  ground  of  a 
naval  vessel  or  squadron.  The  United 
States  maintains  the  following  stations: 
North  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Asiatic,  Euro- 
pean, and  South  Atlantic. 

Submarines.  Vessels  capable  of  running 
either  on  the  surface  of  the  water  or  sub- 
merged. The  offensive  armament  is  the 
torpedo,  and  the  later  boats  are  equipped 
with  light  guns  for  use  while  on  the  sur- 
face. 

Submarine  Mines.  Metal  cases  en- 
closing large  quantities  of  high  explo- 
sives, designed  to  attack  the  sub-water 
parts  of  warships.  They  are  placed  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  ap- 
proaches to  a  harbor  or  roadstead.  They 
are  either  self-acting  or  controlled. 

Terrain.  The  ground,  its  configuration 
and  natural  and  artificial  diversification. 
The  topographical  character  of  the 
country,  region,  or  tract,  as  viewed  from 
a  military  standpoint. 

Torpedo  Craft.  Vessels  whose  main 
offensive  armament  is  the  torpedo  and 
which  rely  on  high  speed,  small  size,  and 
a  few  light  guns  for  defense.  Torpedo 
Boats:  small  torpedo  craft  of  from  50  to 
about  300  tons  displacement.  Speed 
varies  from  about  19  to  29  knots.  Small 
or  no  guns.  Destroyers:  larger  torpedo 
craft  of  from  about  350  to  1,100  tons 
displacement,  carrying  more  torpedo 
tubes  and  heavier  guns  (about  4-inch 
caliber),  and  having  greater  freeboard 
and  speed  (from  about  25  to  33  knots). 

Torpedo  Shell.  A  deck-piercing  shell 
with  an  unusually  large  explosive  cavity, 
fired  from  mortars  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  a  large  explosive  charge  to  the 
decks  of  war  vessels. 

War  College,  Army.  A  military  school 
for  the  training  of  General  Staff  officers 
established  in  Washington,  D.  C.  It 
is  under  the  control  of  a  brigadier- 
general  of  the  General  Staff. 

War  College,  Navy.  A  Naval  School  for 
the  study  of  problems  affecting  the  proper 
handling  of  the  fleet  and  problems  affect- 
ing naval  strategy,  Newport,  R.  I. 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Brigadier  General  Henry  L.,  and 

use  of  mortars,  160 
Adjutant  General's  Department,  functions 

of,  48 

peace  strength,  28 
Aero  Club  of  America,  aid  in  supplying 

aeroplanes,    107 

Aero  Squadrons,  formation  of,  104 
Aeronautic  experiments  at  Pensacola,  233 
Aeronautics,  Naval,  233 
appropriations  for,  233,  234 
development  abroad,  108 
Aeroplane,  first  Army,  103 
in  Argentine  Artillery  practice,  149 
large  high  speed,  being  constructed,  261 
life  and  upkeep,  106 
regulation  of  Artillery  fire,  149 
use  in  directing  Artillery  fire,  95 
Aeroplane  bombs  being  provided,  256 
Aeroplane  models,  wind  tunnel  for  testing, 

261 

Aeroplane  records,  Army  aviators,  105 
Aeroplanes,  Army  use  of,  104 

furnished    by    Aero    Club    of    America, 

through  public  subscription,  107 
in  European  War,  108 
number  of  machines  in  Army  and  total 

number  of  flights,  106 
Wright  and  Curtis,  103 
Agafia,  Guam,  insular  health  department, 

281 
Agricultural    and    Mechanical    College    of 

Texas,  Army  officer  detailed  at,  199 
Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 

Agricultural  School  of  University  of  Ne- 
braska, Army  officer  detailed  at,  200 
Alaska,  area  and  population,  38 
Army  cable  to,  100 
protection  of,  20 
work  of  War  Department  in,  39 
Algerian  Corsairs,  depredations  by,  213 
Algiers,  tribute  to,  213 
Ammunition,  shortage  of  in  coast  defense, 

46 

Amphitrite,  monitor,  303 
Andrews,   Major  Lincoln  C.,   on  Cavalry 

action,  135 

Annapolis,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Anti-air-craft  gun  deve^ped,  153,  256 
Argentina,    aeroplane    in    Field    Artillery 

service  in,  149 

Argentine-American    Naval    trophy    com- 
petition for,  335 

Arizona,  guns  completed  for,  256 
Arlington,  Va.,  Radio  station,  231,  247 
Armenia,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  341 


Armies,  peace  and  war  strength  of  prin- 
cipal powers,  11,  13,  15,  17 
Armor  for  battleships,  status  of  industry 

in  United  States,  300 
requirements  of,  and  how  attained,  302 
Armor  piercing  projectile  developed,  256 
Armor  plate,  amount  contracted  for  and 

price  per  ton,  257 
cost  per  ton,  302 
processes  for  hardening,  302 
Army  Field  Engineer  School,  Ft.  Leaven- 
worth,  180,  182 
Army  Field  Service  and  Correspondence 

School  for  Medical  Officers,  180 
Army,  actual  strength,  May  25,  1916,  51 
Departments  composing,  27 
increase  authorized  by  Congress,  51 
improvement  in  food  and  cooking,  57 
term  of  enlistment,  50 
Army    Medical    School,    Washington,    70, 

180 
Army  Nurse  Corps,  formation,  73 

pay  of,  74 

Army  Reserve,  The,  376 
furloughed  to,  50 
term  of  service  in,  50 
Army  Reserves  called  out  for  Border  duty, 

31 

Army  Service  Schools,  180,  182 
Army  School  of  the  Line,  Ft.  Leavenworth, 

180,  182 
Army    Signal    School,    Ft.    Leavenworth, 

180,  182 

Army  Staff  College,  Ft.  Leavenworth,  180 
Army  transport  service,  not  sufficient,  377 
Army  Aviation  Schools  established,  103 
Army  aviators,   number  and  how  selected, 

103 
Army  War  College,  Washington,  180,  183. 

184 
Army  and  Navy,  Coordinate  relationship 

of,  5 

how  created,  26 

Army  and  Navy  football  game,  195 
Army  and  Navy  Relief  Societies,  364 
Arsenals  and  supply  depots,  proper  loca- 
tion, 24 

Arsenals,  where  located,  and  products  of,  91 
Articles  of  War,  for  government  of  Army,  26 

revision  of,  61 

Artificer  School,  Norfolk,  253 
Artillery,  large  calibred  mobile,  develop- 
ment of,  46 
limit  of  range,  95 
peace  strength,  28 

Artillery.     See    also    Coast    Artillery    and 
Field  Artillery. 


391 


392 


INDEX 


Assignment  of  officers  and  warrant  officers, 

Navy,  251 

Assistant  and  Chief  Clerk  of  War  Depart- 
ment, duties,  34 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  duties 

of  223 

Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  duties,  33 
Atkinson,   Dr.   Fred.   W.,  General  Super- 
intendent Public  Instruction,  Philip- 
pines, 118 

Atlantic  area,  military  requirements,  22 
Augusta  Arsenal,  location,  92 
Austria-Hungary,  preparedness  for  oversea 

expeditions,  9 

peace  and  war  strength,  11,  13,  15,  17 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Automobile  infantry  units,  129 
Automobile  mortar,  Austrian,  150 
Automobile  trucks,  number  available  for 

transport  service,  65 
Automobiles  replace  horses  for  staff  officers, 

130 

Aviation,  inadequately  provided  for,  103 
records  of  Army  flyers,  105 
regulation  of  Artillery  fire,  149 
schools  established  for  Army,  103, 181 
taken  up  by  Marine  Corps,  319 
units  in  foreign  armies,  106 
Aviation.    See  also  Aeronautics,  Aeroplanes, 

and  Hydroaeroplanes. 
Aviation  Section  of  Signal  Corps  established, 

103 
Aviators,  civilian,  number  of,   in  United 

States,  106 

number  in  Army  and  how  selected,  103 
with  troops  in  Mexico,  104,  106 

Bailey    Military    Institute,    Army    officer 

detailed  at,  200 

Balboa,  C.  Z.,  radio  station  at,  247 
Baltimore,  equipped  as  mine  layer,  257 
Barnett,    Major    General    George,    Com- 
mandant Marine  Corps,  quoted,  316 
Bassett,  Capt.   F.   B.,   Chief  of  Division 

of  Naval  Militia,  283 
Battalion,    Field    Artillery,    strength    and 

organization,  146 

Battalion  formation,  Infantry,  124 
Battery,    Field    Artillery,    strength    and 

organization,  146 
Battle  cruisers  and  scouts  recommended 

by  General  Board  of  the  Navy,  240 
Battle  cruisers  in  various  navies,  300 
Battle-cruiser-destroyer  being  constructed 

by  Great  Britain,  300 
Battleship  in  cross  section,  299 
Battleships,  how  planned,  236 

still  the  main  reliance,  238,  240 
Belgium,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Bellinger,  Lieutenant,  altitude  record  for 

hydroaeroplanes,  233  ? 
Benicia  Arsenal,  location,  92 
Benson,  Rear  Admiral,  William  S.,  Chief 

of  Naval  Operations,  229 
Beri    beri,    controlled    by    Army    medical 

officers,  71 
Bicknell  E.  P.,  Director  General  of  Civil 

Relief,  American  Red  Cross,  340 
Bingham  School,  Army^officer  detailed  at, 

200 


Bird    reservations    under    protection    of 

Coast  Guard  service,  324 
Blackstone  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  201 
Board    for    Study    of   Tropical    Diseases, 

71 

Board  of  Review,  coast  defense,  156 
Border,  expense  of  maintaining  troops  on, 

64 
Boston,  construction  of  state  graving  dock 

at,  248 

Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Boy  Scouts  in  South  Africa  and  England, 

347 
Boy  Scouts  of  America,  history  and  objects, 

347 

educational  department,  353 
number  of  Scouts  registered,  351 
requirements  for  different  grades,  354 
Scoutcraft  instruction,  348 
statistical  data,  358 
the  Scout  Law,  349 
the  Scout  Oath,  Sign,  and  Salute,  359 
tests  for  Merit  badges,  348 
training  courses  at  universities,  354 
Brooklyn,  Red  Cross  Naval  base  hospital, 

342 
Brown    University   students    members   of 

field  batteries,  153 
Bruce,  Sergeant  Einar  L.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Bubonic  plague  in  Philippine  Islands,  117 
Bulgaria,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Burdette,    Captain    Cornelius    L.,    record 

national  rifle  competition,  332 
Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair,  duties 

of,  and  personnel,  259 
Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  duties,  1 10 

peace  strength,  28 
Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  duties 

of,  and  personnel,  274 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  duties  of,  249 
Bureau  of  Ordnance,  duties  of,  255 
Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering,  duties  of,  263 
Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts,  duties  of, 

266 
Bureau  of  Yards  and   Docks,   duties  of, 

and  personnel,  246 

Bureaus  of  the  Navy  Department,  223 
Burnett,  Sergeant  Court  W.,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  333 
Bushnell,  inventor  of  submarine  mine,  167 
Business  Men's  camps  of  instruction,  210 
Cable  to  Alaska  laid  by  Signal  Corps,  100 
Cadet  gray,  origin  of  color,  66 
California  area.  Military  requirements,  22 
California  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 

California,  cost  and  armament,  300 
electrically  propelled,  300 
size  of  guns  under  construction  for,  256 
Camps  of  instruction,  military,  35,  47,  203 
Canal  Zone,  reorganization  of  government, 

35 

Carberry,  First  Lieut.  J.  E.,  aviation  re- 
cord, 105 
Carbons,    for   searchlights,   superiority   of 

American,  163 
Carter,   Major  General  Wm.  H.,  quoted, 

183 


INDEX 


393 


Castle  Heights  School,   Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

Cavalry,  arms  and  equipment,  134 
Colonel  Dqdd's  command  in  Mexico,  137 
cost  of  equipping  one  division,  24 
daily  routine  of  troops,  143 
maneuvering  in  action,  136 
on  reconnaissance  duty,  134 
organization  and  strength,  132 
peace  strength,  28 
relative    peace    strength    of    principal 

powers,  17 

remounts,  how  provided,  141 
training  and  care  of  the  horse,  138, 143 
units  and  organization,  133 
use  of,  in  battle,  132 
weight  of  equipment,  137 
Cavite,   Philippine  Islands,  Marines  stat- 
ioned at,  315 

Censor,  Senior  Signal  Officer  as,  99 
Chamberlain,  Senator,  author  of  bill  pro- 
viding  for    national    training   school, 
326,  367 

Chandler,  Capt.  Ralph,  sweeping  for  tor- 
pedoes in  Civil  War,  308 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  radio  station  at,  248 
Cherry  Mine  disaster,  Red  Cross  relief  for, 

341 

Chevrons,  to  denote  rank,  31 
Cheyenne,,  monitor,  303 
Chicago,  111.,  radio  station  at,  248 
Chief  Clerk  of  Navy  Department,  duties 

of,  223 
Chief  of  Staff,  annual  report,  44 

as  Secretary  of  War  ad  interim,  34,  44 
duties  of,  43 

Chiefs  of  Staff  Bureaus,  how  selected,  39 
Chinese  famines,  Red  Cross  relief  for,  341 
Chronograph,  powder  testing  machine,  162 
Chronometer  and  Time  Station,  service  of, 

250 
Citizen  Army,   Navy,   and  Cadet  Corps, 

training  in,  367,  368 
Civil  War,  the  Navy  in  the,  215 
Clem,   Col.   John,   last  officer  serving  in 

Civil  War,  50 

Clemson   Agricultural   College,   Army  of- 
ficer detailed  at,  199 
Clinnin,   Major  John  V.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Clyde,  Sergeant  Claude  H.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Coal,  Alaska,  found  satisfactory  for  Naval 

vessels,  264 

experiments  in  storing,  264 
Coast  Artillery,  distribution  of,  20 
gun  practice,  162 
officers'  course  of  study,  164 
mimic  Naval  and  Coast  Defense  engage- 
ment, 177 
peace  strength,  28 
Coast     Artillery    Corps.     Personnel     and 

strength,  155 
Coast  Artillery  School,  Ft.  Monroe,  180, 181 

courses  of  study  for  enlisted  men,  165 
Coast  defense,  advantages  of  large  guns 

for,  165 

amount  expended  for,  156 
of  what  it  consists,  158 


Coast  defense,  number  of  officers  and  men 

required,  157 

range  of  new  guns  and  mortars,  156 
report  on,  45 
importance  of,  88 
Coast  Guard  Academy,   course  of  study 

and  pay  of  cadets,  325 
Coast    Guard,    consolidation   of    Revenue 

Cutter  service  and  Life  Saving  ser- 
vice, 320 

equipment  and  duties,  321 
number  officers  and  men  constituting,  320 
services  rendered  by,  322 
Code,  International  Morse,  used  by  Army 

and  Navy,  101,  126 

two-arm  semaphore,  with  hand  flags,  102 
College  of  St.  Thomas,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

College  students,  training  camps  for,  203 
Colon,  C.  Z.,  radio  station  at,  247 
Colorado     Agricultural      College,      Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Colors  of  Secretary  of  War,  37 
Colt,  adapts  electricity  to  submarine  mine, 

167 
Columbia  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Columbia  University,  Boy  Scout  training 

courses  at,  354 

Comite  International  de  Secours,  342 
Commissary   Schools,    Newport   and   San 

Francisco,  254 

Company  strength  and  organization,   In- 
fantry, 124 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  member  of 

Central    Committee    American    Red 

Cross,  339 
Concordia  College,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 
Connecticut    Agricultural    College,    Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Connecticut    Naval    Militia,    number    of 

officers  and  men,  282 

Construction  Corps,  Navy  Department,  259 
Cookery,  new  Army  kitchen,  130 
Cooking,  improvement  in  Army,  57 
Coppedge,    Corporal    James    F.,    record 

national  rifle  competition,  332 
Coppersmith  School,  Charleston,  253 
Cordova,  Alaska,  radio  station  at,  248 
Cornell  University,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 

Corps  of  Engineers,  organization  and  du- 
ties, 79 

peace  and  war  strength,  80,  81 
Correspondence  School  for  Medical  Reserve 

Corps  officers,  280,  281 
Courts  martial,  number  of,  59 
Crawley,    Private    Theodore    B.,    record 

national  rifle  competition,  342 
Cross  section  of  first-class  battleship,  299 
Crowder,    Brigadier    General    Enoch    H., 

Judge  Advocate  General,  58 
Crozier,  Brigadier  General  William,  Chief 

of  Ordnance  Department,  90 
Cruises  of  Naval  Academy,  289 
Cruises  of  Naval  Militia,  286 
Cuba,  compilation  of  new  laws  and  penal 

code  for,  61 
provisional  government,  110 


394 


INDEX 


Culver  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Daniels,  Josephus,  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 

excerpt  from  report  of,  227 
Dardanelles,  mine  defense,  167 
Deane,  Silas,  on  first  Navy  Committee,  211 
Death  benefit,  paid  by  Government,  69 
Death  rate  for  the  Navy,  277 
Delaware   College,   Army  officer   detailed 

at,  199 
Denison,    Winfred    T.,    Secretary   of    the 

Interior,  Philippine  Islands,  113 
Dental  Corps,  formation,  72 
Dental  Corps  of  the  Navy,  276 
Desertion  in  Army,  45 
its  causes  and  prevention,  59 
statistics,  61 

study  of  its  causes  and  punishments,  244 
Destroyers,    size,    speed,    equipment,    and 

cost,  306 
Dewey,  Admiral  George,  President  of  the 

General  Board  of  the  Navy,  235 
Disciplinary  barracks,  where  located,  51 
Disciplinary    barracks    guards,   on    peace 

strength,  28 

Disciplinary  system,  new,  52 
Discipline  in  Military  and  Naval  service, 

362 

Diseases,  tropical,  study  of,  71 
District  of  Columbia  Naval  Militia,  number 

of  officers  and  men,  282 
Diving,  research  work  in  deep  sea,  261 
Dodd,  Colonel,  defeats  Mexican  bandits, 

137 

Dover,  N.  J.,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Drills  and  field  exercises,  Infantry,  127 
Drinker,  Dr.  Henry  Sturgis,  on  students' 

camps  of  instruction,  205 
Dry  docks  recently  completed,  246 
Dubuque  equipped  as  mine  layer,  257 
Duce,  Captain  Charles  K.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Dye  shortage  and  its  influence  on  uniforms, 

66 

Earthquake  relief,  American  Red  Cross,  341 
Eastland    disaster,    American    Red    Cross 

relief,  341 

Eddy,   Captain  Emmett   W.,   record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  332 
Educational   institutions  at  which  Army 

officers  are  detailed,  198 
Electrical  Schools,   New  York  and  Mare 

Island,  253 
Electrically     propelled    battleships    more 

commodious,  260 

Emerson,    Captain    Guy    H.,    record    na- 
tional rifle  competition,  332 
Endicott  Board  appointed,  156 

rules  for  heavy  guns,  93 
Engineer  School,  Washington  Barracks,  180, 
Engineering  Experiment  Station,  Annapolis, 

263 

Engineering  operations,   and  amount  ex- 
pended on,  84 
Engineers  in  War,  84 
Engineers'  Corps,  organization  and  duties 

79 

peace  and  war  strength,  28,  80,  81 
England,  peace  and  war  strength,  11,  13, 

15,  17 


England,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Enlisted  men,  peace  strength,  28 
Enlisted  Reserve  Corps,  provided  for,  30 
Enlistment,  new  contract,  of,  364 

term  of,  50 

Enlistment  period,  bar  to  enlistmen' ,  57 
Entrenchments,  consrtructionfof,  86 
Equipment,  amount  on  hand,  64 

estimated  cost,  24 

reserve,  23 

Equitations,  vital  feature  of  Military  oper- 
ations, 137 

European  War,  Red  Cross  relief,  341 
Evolution  of  Military  policies,  3 
Extra  pay  encourrage  marksmanship,  334 
F-4  salvaged  at  Honolulu,  261 
Fairbanks,  Alaska,  established,  40 
Famine  relief,  American  Red  Cross,  341 
Farquharson,  Sergeant  Archie,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  332 
Feiss,    Sargeant    Albert,    record    national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Felt,  Sergeant  Loren  M.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Field  Artillery,  Anti-air-craft  guns,  153 

average  day's  march  for  battery,  153 

course  of  training,  147 

directing  fire  from  concealment,  149 

field  guns  and  howitzers  151,  152 

functions  in  warfare,  147 

importance  of  in  modern  warfare,  94 

length  of  battlefront,  regiment,  battalion, 
battery,  154 

number  of  guns  on  hand  for,  94 

organization  and  strength,  145 

peace  strength,  28 

President  may  increase  as  necessary,  145, 
147 

ranges  of  fire,  154 

relative    peace    strength    of    principal 
powers,  15 

training  of  the  artilleryman,  151 

Universities  maintaining  batteries,  153 
Field  days  in  Army  and  Navy,  362 
Field  exercises  and  drills,  Infantry,  127 
Field  machine  shop  of  Aero  Squadron,  107 
Fields,    Sergeant    Louis,    record    national 

rifle  competition,  332 
First  Aid,  soldiers'  instruction  in,  75 
First  Aero  Squadron  flight  to  Fort  Sam 

Houston,  107 

Fish  Commission,  assignments  to,  254 
Flag  Day  proclamation  of  President  Wil- 
son, 383 

Flag  of  Secretary  of  War,  37 
Flags,  signaling  with,  101 
Fleet  divisions  of  the  Navy,  217 
Fleets,  how  employed  during  past  year,  226 
Florida   Military  Academy,   Army  officer 

detailed  at,  201 
Florida  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 

Food,  improvement  of,  for  enlisted  men,  57 
Foreign  service,  increased  pay  for,  363 
Foreign  travel  on  furlough,  364 
Forest  fires,  Red  Cross  relief  for,  341 
Fork    Union    Military    Academy,    Army 

officer  detailed  at,  200 
Ft.    Leavenworth.     New    Military    prison 
at,  52 


INDEX 


395 


Fort  Pitt  Rifle  Club,  record  in  qualifying 

experts,  329 
Fort  Sheridan,  111.,  business  men's  camp 

of  instructi9n,  210 
Foulois,    Captain    Benjamin    D.,   in    first 

Army  aeroplane,  103 
in  Mexico,  command  of  Aero  Squadron, 

106,  107 
Frankfort  Arsenal,  location  and  products, 

91 
France,  peace  and  war  strength,  11,  13,  15, 

17 

preparedness  for  oversea  expeditions,  9 
public  subscription  for  aviation,  107 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
French  Red  Cross  achievements,  345 
French,    P.  A.  Surgeon,    deep  diving    in- 

vestigations.278 
Fuel  oil,  battleships  built  to  consume,  303 

erection  of  storage  plants  for,  247 
Fuel  Oil  School,  Philadelphia,  253 
Fulton,  improves  submarine  mine,  167 
Purer,    Naval   Constructor   Julius   A.,   in 
charge  of  salvage  of  submarine  F-4, 
262 

Furloughs,  how  granted,  364 
Gadsden,  Christopher,  on  first  Navy  com- 
mittee, 211 
Garlington,  Brigadier  General  Ernest  A., 

Inspector  General,  55 
Garrison,  Lindley  M.,  Reports  as  Secretary 

of  War,  34 

inaugurates  reform  in  Military  prisons,  60 
Garrison  life  in  Army  and  Navy,  361 
General  Board  of  the  Navy,  235,  238 
General  officers,  peace  strength,  28 
General  Staff  Corps,  duties  of,  42 
Geneva,  Red  Cross  Conference  and  Treaty, 

338,  342 
Georgia  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Georgia    Military    College,    Army    officer 

detailed  at,  199 
Germany,  high  percentage  of  artillery  to 

other  troops,  153 

peace  and  war  strength,  11, 13, 15, 17 
preparedness  for  oversea  expeditions,  9 
public  subscription  for  aviation,  107 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Gettysburg,  Pa.,  training  camp  at,  203,  207 
Goethals,  Major  General  George,  builder 

of  Panama  Canal,  83 
Governor  of  Canal  Zone,  35 
Gordon  Institute,  Army  officer  detailed  at, 

200 
Gorgas,  Major  General  William  C.,  Surgeon 

General,  67 

excerpts  from  report  of,  78 
work  in  Cuba  and  Panama,  70 
Government  assistance  to  Military  schools 

198 
Great    Britain,    preparedness    for   oversea 

expeditions,  9 

Grecian-Balkan  War,  Red  Cross  relief,  341 
Guam,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
no  physicians  in,  281 
under  jurisdiction  of  Bureau  of  Insular 

Affairs,  110 

Guantanamo,  Cuba,  as  Naval  base,  20,  44 
Marines  stationed  at,  315 


Guantanamo,  Cuba,  radio  station  at,  248 
Gulick,  Major  J.  W.,  quoted,  298 
Gun  Foundry  Board,  appointed,  156 
Gunboats,  size,  speed,  etc.,  303 
Gunnery  Exercises  and  Engineering  Per- 
formances, Office  of,  230 
Haiti,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  341 
Hamilton,    Colonel    Alexander,    interested 

in  establishment  of  Military  Academy. 

185,  186 

Hammond  radio-controlled  torpedo,  166 
Hardening  processes  for  armor  plate,  302 
Harris,  Rear  Admiral  Frederic  R.,  Chief 

of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  246 
Harrison,  Hon.  Francis  Burton,  Governor 

General,  Philippine  Islands,  113 
Harvard  School,  Los  Angeles,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Harvard  University  students,  members  of 

field  battery,  153 
Harvey,    H.    A.,    inventor   of   process   for 

hardening  armor  plate,  302 
Hawaiian    Islands,    strategic    value    and 

defense  of,  18 
area  and  population,  38 
Naval   Militia,  number  of  officers  and 

men,  282 

work  of  Army  in,  44 
Hawaiian  Ordnance  Depot,  92 
Hazing  prohibited  at  Naval  Academy,  294 
Headquarters   Company,    Field    Artillery, 

strength  and  organization,  145 
Headquarters  Company,  Infantry,  strength 

and  organization,  124 
Heliograph,  signaling  with,  101 
Henry  Barracks,  Porto  Rico,  121 
Henshaw,    Corporal     Ralph     N.,     record 

national  rifle  competition,  332 
Hingham,  Mass.,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Hird,  Captain  Fred  S.  record  national  rifle 

competition,  333 
Hitchcock  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Holland,  John  B.,  inventor  of  submarine, 

offers    to    demonstrate    at    Santiago, 

309 
Holland  No.  9,  first  submarine  purchased 

by  United  States,  309 
Home  service,  requirements  of,  20 
Honolulu,  fortifications  at,  18 

Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Honor    graduates    from    Military    schools 

appointed  by  President  to  West  Point 

and  Army,  201 

Honor  schools  of  Military  training,  201 
Ho,  Sergeant  James,  record  national  rifle 

competition,  332 
Hookworm,  eradicated  by  Medical  Corps,  71 

in  Porto  Rico,  122 
Hopkins,  Esek,  first  Commander-in-Chief 

of  Continental  Navy,  213 
Hopkins,  Private  William,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Horse,  Care  of  Cavalryman's,  138,  143 
Horse  hospitals  in  European  War,  141 
Horses,  number  exported  for  war  purposes, 

142 

total  available,  142 
Horses    and    mules,    available    for    Army 

purposes,  65 


396 


INDEX 


Hospital     Attendant     Schools,     Newport 

and  San  Francisco,  254 
Hospital  Corps,  actual  strength  May  25, 

1916,  51 

Hospital  Corps  of  the  Navy,  276 
Hospital  Corps  Training  School,  Newport, 

280,  281 
Hospital    Corps    Training    School,    Yerba 

Buena,  Cal.,  280,  281 
Hospital,  Naval,  Hawaii,  279 
Norfolk,  Va.,  279 
Pensacola,  279 
Hospital     organization,     American     Red 

Cross,  343 

Hospital  ships,  Naval,  279 
Hospital  units,  European  War  zone,  342 
Hospitals  of  the  Navy  Department,  279 
Howitzers,  mounted  on  railroad  trucks,  166 
siege,  of  Germany  and  Austria,  150 
U.  S.  Field  Artillery,  151,  152 
Huidekoper,  Frederic  Louis,  quoted,  31 
Hydrographic    office,    special    vessels    for 

service  of,  250 
Hydroaeroplane,  Coast  Guard  experiments 

as  aid  in  life  saving,  324 
record,  Army  machine,  106 
for  oversea  companies,  105 
Iceberg    fields,    reported    to    vessels    by 

Coast  Guard  service,  323 
Idaho,  size  of  guns  under  construction  for, 

256 
Illinois  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
ImperaloT,   designed   for  transporting   two 

Army  corps,  377 
Indian  Head,  Md.,  Marines  stationed  at, 

315 

Indian  scouts,  peace  strength,  28 
Infantry,  cost  of  equipping  one  division,  24 
drills  and  field  exercises,  127 
importance  of  thorough  training,  131 
increase  in  strength,  123 
leadership  of  troops  in  battle,  128 
peace  strength,  28 
relative    peace    strength    of    principal 

powers,  13 

strength  and  units  of  organization,  124 
transport  by  motor  truck,  129 
weight  of  equipment,  125 
Infantryman,  duties  and  requirements,  126 
Instruction  camps  authorized,  30 

report  on,  47 
Inspector  General,   extracts  from  annual 

report,  56 
Inspector  General's  Department,  functions 

of,  55 

peace  strength,  28 
International  Morse  Code,  used  by  Army 

and  Navy,  101,  126 

International  patrol  of  iceberg  field,  323 
lona  Island,  N.  Y.,  Marines  stationed  at, 

315 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts,  Army  officer  detailed 
at,  199 

Italy,  peace  and  war  strength,  11,  13, 15, 17 
preparedness  for  oversea  expeditions,  9 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Jackson,  Sergeant  Joseph,  record  national 
rifle  competition,  333 


Jacksonville,   Florida,  national  rifle  team 

match  held  at,  330 
Japan,  peace  and  war  strength,  11, 13, 15, 17 

preparedness  for  oversea  expeditions,  9 
Japanese  famine,  Red  Cross  relief  for,  341 
Japanese  Red  Cross,  membership  of,  345 
Jones,  First  Lieut.  B.  Q.,  aviation  records, 

105,  106 
Jones,    John    Paul,    remains  brought  to 

America,  213 
Judge    Advocate    General's    Department, 

functions  of,  58 
peace  strength,  28 
Judge  Advocate  General  of  the  Navy,  duties 

of,  243 
Kamehameha  Schools,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Kase,  Sergeant  George  S.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Kean,  Col.  Jefferson  R.  on  Army  Medical 

Corps,  75 
Director    General    of    Military    Relief 

American  Red  Cross,  340 
Kemper    Military    School,    Army    officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Kentucky  Military  Institute,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
State  University,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 

Keyport,  Wash.,  radio  station  at,  248 
Key  West,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 

radio  station  at,  248 
Kilpatrick,  transport,  377 
Kingman,  General  Dan  C.,  excerpts  from 

report  of,  88 
Kingston  earthquake,  Red  Cross  relief  for, 

341 

Kitchen,  new  Army,  128 
Klondike  gold  strike,  40 
Knox,  Brigadier  General  Henry,  first, 

proposed  Military  Academy,  186 
Koehler,    Captain,   Master  of    the   Sword 

U.  S.  Military  Academy,  195 
Krupp  process  of  hardening  armor  plate, 

302 
La  Motte,   Captain  Clarence  K.,   record 

national  rifle  competition,  332 
Langdon,  John,  on  first  Navy  Committee, 

211 

Lawless,   Sergeant  Joseph  T.,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  333 
Lendtke,  Sergeant  Walter,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Life  Saving  Service  amalgamated  into 

Coast  Guard,  320 

Limitation  of  Naval  construction,  298 
Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address,  379 
Los    Angeles    Rifle    and    Revolver    Club, 

record  in  qualifying  experts,  329 
Louisiana  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Louisiana   State  University,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  199 
McCain,    Brigadier    General    Henry    P., 

Adjutant  General,  48 
McClellan,  transport,  377 
McComb,  Brigadier  General  Montgomery 

M.,  of  Army  War  College,  183 


INDEX 


397 


McDougall,  Alexander,  first  Secretary  of 

the  Navy,  211 
Mclntyre,      Brigadier     General     Frank, 

Chief  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  110 
McLean,  Captain  Ridley,  Judge  Advocate 

General  of  the  Navy,  243 
Machine-Gun  Company,  Infantry,  strength 

and  organization,  124 
Machine  guns,  effective  use  of,  96 
Machine  shop  of  Aero  Squadron,  107 
Machinist  Mates'  School,  Charleston,  253 
Maine,  destruction  of,  in  Havana  Harbor, 

167 
Maine  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Managua,    Nicaragua,    Marines   stationed 

at,  315 
Manila,  Philippine  Islands,  City  and  harbor 

improvements,   114 
government  of,  113,  114 
water  supply  and  sewerage  system,  115 
Manila  Ordnance  Depot,  92 
Mapa,    Victorino,    Secretary    of    Finance 

and  Justice,  Philippine  Islands,  113 
Mare  Island,  Cal.,  Marines  stationed  at, 

315 

Marine  Corps,  equipment  and  training,  314 
history  of,  313 

organization  and  strength,  311 
rifle  practice,  318 
Marines,    individual    duties    and    routine 

life,  312 
list  of  Navy  yards  and  stations  where 

serving,  315 

on  battleship,  man  certain  guns,  315 
theoretical  and  practical  training,  318 
Marion  Institute,  Army  officer  detailed  at, 

200 
Marist    College,    Army    officer    detailed 

at,  200 

Marks  of  distinction,  Military,  31 
Marksmanship.     See  Rifle  Practice. 
Martin,  Henderson  S.,  Secretary  of  Public 

Instruction,  Philippine  Islands,  113 
Maryland     Agricultural     College,     Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Maryland  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Army 

officers  detailed  at,  199 
Massachusetts    Institute    of    Technology, 

Army  officer  detailed  at,  199 
Massachusetts     Naval     Militia,     number 

of  officers  and  men,  282 
Meade,  transport,  377 
Medical  College,  Army,  70 
Medical  Corps,  authorized  strength,  67 
functions  of,  67 
History  of,  75 
pay  of,  75 

Medical  Corps  of  the  Navy,  personnel,  275 
Medical  Department,  peace  strength,  28 
Medical  examination  of  recruits,  69 
Medical  instruction  for  enlisted  men,  75 
Medical  officers,  number  of,  in  Red  Cross 

base  hospital,  343 
Medical  Reserve  Corps,  formation,  72 

to  terminate  existence,  29 
Medical  Reserve  Corps  of  the  Navy,  275 
Mess  Attendant  School,  Norfolk,  254 


Mess  fund,  how  used,  64 

Messina  earthquake,  Red  Cross  relief  for, 

341 

Mesopotamia,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  341 
Mexican  border  duty,  45 
Mexican  Insurrection,  Red  Cross  relief,  341 
Mexican  Punitive  Expedition,  27 
Mexico,  aviators  with  troops  in,  104,  106 
field  cookery  in,  130 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  341 
peace  and  war  strength,  11 
punitive  expedition  organized,  51 
Miami    Military    Institute,    Army    officer 

detailed  at,  201 
Michigan     Agricultural     College,     Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Michigan  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Miles,  General  Nelson  A.,  observations  in 

Russo-Turkish  War,  160 
Military  Academy,  Army  peace  strength,  28 
Military     and     Naval     resources     versus 

Military  and  Naval  power,  370 
Military  camps  of  instruction,  203 
Military    Colleges,    graduates    qualify    as 

volunteer  officers,  50 
number  of  students  enrolled,  50 
Military  instruction  in  civil  institutions,  198 
Military  policies,  Evolution  of,  3 
Military  policy  of  the  War  Department, 

374 

Military  Prison,  Ft.  Leavenworth,  Appro- 
priation for  new  buildings,  52 
Military  prisons,  conditions  in,  1911,  59 
Military  prison  reforms,  60 
Military  problem,  statement  of  the,  8 
Military   Relief    Division,   American   Red 

Cross,  340,  342,  344 
Military   schools,    Government   assistance 

to.  198 

Military  training  extended,  30 
Militia  and  National  Guard,  173 
called  out  for  Border  duty,  31 
pay  for  the,  376 
strength,  of,  177 
the  first  Militia  law,  173 
Militia  Bureau  in  charge  of  National  Guard, 

174 
Milk,    influence    on    students    at    Naval 

Academy,  293 
Milling,  Lieut.  T.  De  W.,  aviation  records, 

105 
Mills,  Major  General  A.  L.,  Chief  Division 

pf  Militia  Affairs,  177 

Mimic  Naval  and  Coast  defense  engage- 
ment. 177 

Mine  sweeping,  vessels  equipped  for,  257 
Mines.     See  Submarine  mines. 
Minnesota     Naval     Militia,     number    of 

pfficers  and  men,  282 
Mississippi    Agricultural   and    Mechanical 

College,  Army  officer  detailed  at,  199 
Mississippi  flood,  Red  Cross  relief,  341 
Mississippi,  size  of  guns  under  construction, 

for,  256 
Missouri  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  201 
Missouri  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Mobile  troops  and  their  functions,  14 


398 


INDEX 


Mobilization  of  National  Guard,  31 

Model  basin  for  experimental  work,  260 

Models  of  trenches  and  other  field  engineer- 
ing, 54 

Monadnock,  monitor,  303 

Monitors,  size,  speed,  etc.,  303 

Monroe  Doctrine,  as  National  policy,  5, 

372 
requires  preparedness,  313 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture,  Army 
officer  detailed  at,  199 

Montenegro,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 

Monterey,  monitor,  303 

Monterey,  Cal.,  training  camp  at,  203,  208, 
210 

Morgan  Park  Academy,  Army  officers 
detailed  at,  201 

Morrison,  Brigadier  General  John  F.,  on 
thorough  training,  131 

Mortars,  high  efficiency  of,  161 
new  12-inch,  160 
German  siege,  151 

Moses,  Lieut.  Colonel  Andrew,  Secretary 
Army  War  College,  183 

Motor  transport  of  troops,  129,  130 

Motorcycle  organizations,  130 

Mountain  Artillery,  in  connection  with 
Infantry,  154 

Mount  Gretna,  camp  for  target  practice, 
207 

Mount  Tamalpais  Military  Academy,  Army 
officer  detailed  at,  200 

Mounted  Service  School,  Ft.  Riley,   180, 
182 

Mules  and  horses,  available  for  Army 
purposes,  65 

Muller,  Capt.  H.  Le  R.,  aviation  record,  105 

Murray,  Major  General  Arthur,  Vice- 
Chairman  Central  Committee  American 
Red  Cross,  339 

Musician  Schools,  Norfolk  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, 254 

Musicians,  regimental,  363 

Musketry  in  the  Army,  number  of  quali- 
fications in  the  different  grades,  335 

Musketry  in  the  Navy,  competition  for 
the  Argentine-American  trophy,  335 

Mutinies  suppressed  by  Coast  Guard  ser- 
vice, 323 

National  Board  for  Promotion  of  Rifle 
Practice  created,  328 

National  Defense  Act,  27 

National  Guard,  new  legislation,  174 
ordered  to  Mexican  border,  175,  176 
reorganization,  174 

National  Guard  Coast  Artillery,  176 
how  utilized,  157 

National  Naval  Militia  Board,  283 

National  policies,  our  abiding,  4 

National  Reserve  Corps,  Society  of,  or- 
ganized, 203 

National  Rifle  Association,  classes  of  mem- 
bership, 326 

list  of  individual  clubs  comprising,  329 
object  of,  328 

National  Service  School,  Chevy  Chase,  210 
Naval  Academy,  courses  of  study,  292 
cruises  of,  289 

enrollment  increase  authorized,  290 
hazing  prohibited  at,  294 


Naval  Academy,  history,  etc.,  289 
pay  of  midshipmen,  289 
removed  during  Civil  War,  292 
requisites  to  admission,  290 
total  number  graduates,  295 
trophies   and   cups   for   competition   of 

midshipmen,  293 

Naval  Aeronautics,  duties  of  director  of,  232 
Naval  Auxiliary  Service,  statistics  of,  254 
Naval  base  hospital,  Brooklyn,  American 

Red  Cross,  342 
Naval   expenditures   for   1915,   and   since 

1794,  267 

Naval  gun  factory,  efficiency  increased,  257 
Naval  Intelligence,  Office  of,  230 
Naval    Medical    Bulletin,    published    by 
Bureau    of    Medicine    and    Surgery, 
275,  276 

Naval  Medical  School,  Washington,  280 
Naval  Militia,  cruises  of,  286 
history  and  statistics,  282 
strength  of,  by  states,  282 
trophies  for  competition,  285 
Naval   Militia   Acts,   and   appropriations, 

282,283 

Naval  Militia  Examining  Boards,  284 
Naval  Observatory,  service  of,  250 
Naval  officers,  post  graduate  instruction 

for,  252 

Naval  Operations,  Office  of,  229 
Naval  Powder  Factory,  Indian  Head,  Md., 

257 

Naval  Reserve,  of  what  constituted,  252 
rate  of  pay,  and  quarterly  muster,  252 
Naval   storekeeping   operations   for    1915, 

268 
Naval  Training  Stations,  for  enlisted  men, 

253 
Navy,  branches  of  service  how  designated, 

221 

conclusions  of  the  General  Board,  238 
continuous  Naval  policy  formulated  by 

General  Board,  237 
coordinate  with  Army,  5 
five  year  program  of  Naval  construction, 

225,  237,  238 
fleet  divisions,  217 
history  of,  211 
in  the  Civil  War,  215 
its  place  among  World  powers,  211 
lessons  learned  from  European  War,  225 
organization  of  the  Fleet,  218 
present  organization  of  forces,  217 
rank,  command  and  duty  of  officers,  220 
Reserve  Fleets,  219 
status  of  ships,  217 
summary  of  vessels  fit  for  service,  with 

those  authorized,  212 
Navy  and  Army,  how  created,  26 
Navy  and  Army  relief  societies,  364 
Navy  Department,  bureaus  of  the,  223 

organization  and  personnel,  223 
Navy  League,  objects  of,  221 
Navy  small  arms  firing,  number  of  men 

qualifying,  333 
Navy  Trade  Schools,  253 
New   Hampshire,    communicated   with   by 

radio  telephone,  232 

New    Hampshire   College    of   Agriculture, 
Army  officer  detailed  at,  199 


INDEX 


399 


New    Jersey    Naval    Militia,    number    of 

officers  and  men,  282 
New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture,  Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
New    Mexico    Military    Institute,    Army 

officer  detailed  at,  200 
New  Orleans,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 

radio  station  at,  248 
Nevada,  new  battleship,  302 
New  York  Arsenal,  location,  92 
New   York   bill   for   compulsory   Military 

training  in  public  schools,  367 
New  York,  Nlarines  stationed  at,  315 
New  York  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
New  York  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 

Nitric  acid,  dependence  on  Chile  for,  94 
Nome,  Alaska,  established,  40 
Norfolk,  Va.,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
North   Carolina   assigned   to  aviation  ser- 
vice, 233 
North    Carolina    College    of    Agriculture. 

Armv  officer  detailed  at,  199 
North    Carolina    Naval    Militia,    number 

of  officers  and  men,  282 
North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
North  Georgia  Agricultural  College,  Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Northwestern  Military  and  Naval  Academy, 

Army  officer  detailed  at,  200 
Norwich  University,  Army  officer  detailed 

at.  200 
Nurse    Corps.    Army,    organization    and 

duties,   73 

Nurse  Corps  of  the  Navy,  276 
Nurses,  Army,  pay  of,  74 
Nurses,  female,  uniform  for,  74 
Nurses,  number  of  in  Red  Cross  base  hos- 
pital, 343 
sent  to  European  war  zone  by  Red  Cross, 

341 

Oahu,  as  Naval  base,  18 
Oath  of  allegiance,  of  officers  and  enlisted 

men,  26 

Officers  and  warrant  officers,  Navy,  assign- 
ment of,  251 

Officers  detailed  to  Military  schools,  198 
how  distinguished,  31 
peace  strength,  28 
qualified  for  Volunteer  service,  50 
training  schools  for,  180 
Officers'    test    ride    recommended    to    be 

abandoned,  57 
Officers'  Reserve  Corps,  appointments  to 

duty,  29 

organization  of,  29 
Ohio   Naval    Militia,    number   of   officers 

and  men,  282 
Ohio   Northern   University,   Army  officer 

detailed  at,  199 

Ohio  State  University,   Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 
Ohio  storm  and  flood.   Red  Cross  relief, 

341 

Oil  burners.     See  Fuel  Oil. 
Oklahoma,  new  battleship,  302 
Oklahoma     Agricultural     College,     Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 


Olongopa,     Philippine     Islands,     Marines 

stationed  at,  315 
Ordnance    Department,    organization   and 

duties,  90 
peace  strength,  28 
scientific  management  in,  93 
Oregon  Agricultural  College,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  199 
Oregon  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers 

and  men,  282 
Organization  of  Red  Cross  hospitals  (table), 

343 
Otey,  Sergeant  Basil,  record  national  rifle 

competition,  332 
Ouachita   College,    Army    officer    detailed 

at,  199 
Outpost  Company,  organization  and  duties, 

99 
Oversea     expeditions.      Preparedness     of 

world  powers  for,  2 
Oversea  service,  general  requirements  of,  18 

troops  on,  16 
Ozark,  monitor,  303 
Palmer,  Admiral  Leigh  C.,  Chief  of  Bureau 

of  Navigation,  249 
Panama,  Army  work  in,  44 

requirements  as  strategic  position,  19 
Panama  Canal,  credit  to  Medical  Corps, 

70 

16-inch  gun  for,  93,  157 
value  of,  38 

work  of  Army  Engineers,  82 
Panama  Ordnance  Depot,  92 
Patriotic  Instructors'  Association,  379 
Pay  for  the  Militia,  378 
Pay  increased  for  foreign  duty,  363 
in  Army  Nurse  Corps,  74 
in  cavalry  organization,  133 
in  Naval  Reserve,  252 
of  Engineer  troops,  80,  81 
of  Medical  Corps,  75 
of  midshipmen.  Naval  Academy,  289 
Pay  Officers'  School,  Naval,  266 
Peace  and  war  strength.  Cavalry,  133 
Engineer  units,  80,  81 
Infantry,  123,  124 
of  principal  powers,  11, 13,  15, 17 
Peace  Strength  of  Regular  Army,  28 
Pearl  Harbor,  Hawaii,  as  Naval  base,  18 
new  dry  dock  under  construction,  246 
radio  station  at,  248 
Pearson,  Private  Steve  W.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 

Peary,   Rear  Admiral,   promoted   for  dis- 
covery of  North  Pole,  248 
Peking,  China,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Penology,  study  of,  in  relation  to  Naval 

service,  245 
Pennsylvania,  guns  completed  for,  256 

size,  speed,  armor,  armament,  etc.,  303 
Pennsylvania     Military     College,     Army 

officer  detailed  at,  199 
Pennsylvania    Naval    Militia,    number   of 

officers  and  men,  282 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  199 

Pensacola,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Pensacola    Navy    Yard    as    aeronautical 

station,  233 
Pension  and  death  benefit,  69 


400 


INDEX 


Pensions,  cost  of,  32 

Philadelphia,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 

Philippine  Constabulary,  1 18 

Philippine   Islands,   A  common   language, 

118 

administrative  cooperation,  114 
area  and  population,  38 
Army  telegraph  lines,  100 
Bubonic  plague,  117 
Bureau  of  Forestry,  117 
Bureau  of  Health,  115 
Bureau  of  Printing,  1 19 
Central  Government  organization,  113 
Department  of  the  Interior,  115 
government  of.  111 
hospitals,  117 
Insular  ice  plant,  119 
Judiciary,  113 
Military  requirements,  18 
Public  school  system,  1 18 
Resident  Commissioners,  1 13 
rights  and  privileges,  112 
smallpox  and  vaccination,  116 
statistics,  111 
the  Constabulary,  118 
under  jurisdiction  of  Bureau  of  Insular 

Affairs,  110 

University  of  the  Philippines,  119 
wprk  of  Army  in,  44 
Philippine   Scouts,   actual   strength,   May 

25,  1916,  51 
beri  beri  cured  in,  72 
peace  strength,  28 

Picatinny    Arsenal,    location    and    manu- 
factures, 91 
Pingree    Memorial   Fund    for   Boy   Scout 

training  work,  354 

Pioneers,  organization  and  duties,  85 
Plagues,  Red  Cross  relief  for,  341 
Platoon,  size  of,  126 

Plattsburg,   business   men's   camp   of   in- 
struction, 210 

Point  Isabel,  Tex.,  radio  station  at,  248 
Poland,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  341 
Pontoon  battalion,  organization  and  duties, 

85 

Population  of  the  United  States,  31 
Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  Marines  stationed  at, 

315 

Porto  Rico,  area  and  population,  38 
becomes  United  States  possession,  120 
construction  of  public  roads,  121 
form  of  government,  120 
free  trade  with  United  States,  122 
irrigation  system,  121 
location,  area,  and  population,  121 
Porto  Rico  Regiment  of  Infantry,  28, 

121,  123,  124 

prevalence  of  hookworm,  122 
protection  of,  20 
public  education,  121, 122 
trade  statistics,  122 
under  jurisdiction  of  Bureau  of  Insular 

Affairs,  110 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Marines  stationed  at, 

315 

Post  Exchange,  advantages  of,  364 
Post  graduate  instruction  for  Naval  officers, 

252,  259 
Postmasters,  as  recruiting  agents,  51 


Powder,  output  of  private  factories  greatly 

developed,  257 
Powder,   smokeless,   amount   produced   at 

Naval  powder  factory,  and  cost,  257 
Powell,  Sergeant  Harry  D.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 

Power  plants  at  Navy  yards  recently  con- 
structed, 247 

Practice  with  large  guns  and  mortars,  162 
Preparedness  of  World  powers  for  oversea 

expeditions,  7 

Preparedness,  necessity  of,  6 
Preparedness  training  camps,  203 
President,  the  Commander-in-chief,  26 
Prisoners'  Military  status  restored,  53 
Prisoners,  number  decreased  in  Navy,  245 
Projectiles,  armor  piercing,  256 

cost  of,  and  difficulty  in  securing,  256 
manufacture  of,  at  Naval  gun  factory, 

256 

photography  of,  160 

weight,  range,  penetration  and  cost,  159 
Public  education  in  Philippines,  118 

in  Porto  Rico,  121 

Puget  Sound,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Puget  Sound  area.  Military  requirements, 

20 
Purdue  University,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 

field  battery  maintained  by,  153 
Punishment,  new  disciplinary  system,  52 
Punitive  Expedition  in  Mexico,  Col.  Dodd's 

defeat  of  bandits,  137 
new  field  kitchen  with,  130 
Quartermaster  Corps,  actual  strength  May 

25,  1916,  51 

aggregate  expenditures,  63 
functions  of,  62 
peace  strength,  28 
total  enlisted  strength,  62 
Quartermaster  Reserve  Corps  recommended, 

64 
Radio    censorship    between    Europe    and 

United  States,  232 
Radio  Company,  organization  and  duties, 

99 

Radio  neutrality  laws,  232 
Radio  Service,  superintendent  of,  230 
Radio  Station,  Darien,  C.  Z.,  264 
Radio  stations,  control  of,  220 

furnish  standard  time,  250 
Radio-telegraphy,  at  Coast  Artillery  School, 

165 

experiments  of  Navy  Department,  232 
Radio    telephone    communication    accom- 
plished, 231 

Radio  towers  recently  constructed,  247 
Railroad  transportation,  rolling  stock  avail- 
able, 65 

Ramilles,  British  flagship  menaced  by  sub- 
marine in  1812,  307 
Randle,  Private  Walter  M.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Ratio  of  soldiers  to  population,  27,  31 
Rations,  daily  per  enlisted  man,  and  cost, 

63 

Rebellion,  Official  Records,  issued  by  Ad- 
jutant General,  49 
Reconnaissance  with  cavalry,  134 
Recruiting  by  postmasters,  51 


INDEX 


401 


Recruiting  for  Marine  Corps,  311 

U.  S.  Navy,  253 
Recruiting  detail,  and  recruits.  Army  peace 

strength,  28 
Recruiting  stations,  number  and  location, 

51 

Recruits,  annual  number  of,  50 
Red  Cross  base  hospitals,  organization,  343 
Red  Cross,  history  of,  338 

Military  Relief  Division,  340,  342,  344 
not  permitted  to  send  supplies  to  Central 

Powers,  341 
relief  operations,  341 
shipments  to  European  countries,  340 
Reed,  Eugene  E.,  Secretary  of  Commerce 

and  Police,  Philippine  Islands,  113 
Reed,  Major  Walter,  study  of  typhus,  78 
Regiment,  Cavalry,  strength  and  organi- 
zation, 133 

Infantry,  strength  and  organization,  124 
Regular  Army,  general  functions  of,  10 
Reina  Mercedes,  maintained  at  Annapolis, 

294 

Relation  between  home  and  oversea  gar- 
risons, 16 

Relief,  hospital  ship,  279 
Relief  operations,  American  Red  Cross,  341 
Religious  services,  Army  and  Navy,  363 
Relief  Societies,  Army  and  Navy,  364 
Remounts,  available,  65 

for  cavalry,  how  provided,  141 
Reorganization  of  Army,  27 
Reserve  Fleets  of  the  Navy,  219 

material,  importance  of,  23 
Revenue  Cutter  Service  amalgamated  into 

Coast  Guard,  320 
Rhode   Island   Naval   Militia,   number  of 

officers  and  men,  282 
State  College,  Army  officer  detailed  at, 

199 

Richardson,  Col.  W.  P.,  work  in  Alaska,  39 
Rifle  clubs,  members  National  Rifle  Asso- 
ciation, 327 

Rifle  practice,  Appropriations  in  aid  of,  328 
competitions  of  clubs,  331 
individual  members  of  rifle  clubs  qualify- 
ing, 329 

individual  scores  at  national  match,  332 
list  of  teams  and  aggregate  scores,  na- 
tional matches,  1915.  330 
Marine  Corps,  318 
National  Team  Match,  330 
Navy    competition    for   the   Argentine- 
American  trophy,  335 
Navy  small  arms  firing,  333 
number  in  Marine  Corps  qualifying  in 

the  different  grades,  337 
number  of  Army  qualifications  in  the 

different  grades,  335 

ranges  to  be  provided  by  government,  331 
Vessels  winning  the  Fleet  trophies,  336 
Rifle  Practice,  National  Board  for  Promo- 
tion of,  created,  328 
River  and  Harbor  Board,  83 
Rivera,  Luis  Munoz,  Commissioner  from 

Porto  Rico,  120 
Riverside  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 

Rizey,  Surgeon  General,  established  Naval 
Medical  School.  280 


Rock  Island  Arsenal,  location  and  products, 

92 
Rocky    Mountain    Rifle   Club,    record    in 

qualifying  experts,  329 
Roosevelt,  President,  appoints  Taft  Board, 

156 

on  Boy  Scout  movement,  359 
Rousseau,    Rear    Admiral,    promoted    for 

work  on  Panama  Canal,  248 
Rules  and  regulations,  how  promulgated,  26 
Rupertus,  Lieutenant  William  H.,  record 

national  rifle  competition,  332 
Russell,  Major  F.  F.,  researches  in  typhoid 

inoculation,  71 
Russia,  peace  and  war  strength,  11,  13,  15, 

17 

preparedness  for  oversea  expeditions,  9 
Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Rutgers   Scientific    School.     Army    officer 

detailed  at,  199 
Safety    First   through   universal    Military 

and  Naval  training,  365 
St.  John's  College,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 
St.  John's  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
St.  John's  School,  Army  officer  detailed  at, 

200 

Sampson,  Admiral,  at  Santiago,  309 
San  Antonio  Arsenal,  location,  92 
San    Diego    Army    and    Navy    Academy, 

Army  officer  detailed  at,  200 
San  Diego,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 

radio  station  at,  248 
Sandy  Hook  Proving  Ground,  experiments 

at,  92 
San    Francisco,    construction    of    graving 

dock  at,  248 

Red  Cross  earthquake  relief  to,  341 
San  Francisco,  mine  laying  ship,  257 
Santo  Domingo,  convention  with,  110 
Societd  de  Secours  aux  Blesses  Militaires, 

345 

Society  of  National  Reserve  Corps  organ- 
ized, 203 
Sola,  Col.   Ricardo,  on  use  of  aeroplane 

to  regulate  Artillery  fire,  149 
Solace,  hospital  ship,  279 
Soldier  and  statesman,  coordinate  relation- 
ship of,  6 

Soldiers,  ratio  to  population,  27,  31 
Solicitor   General   of   the   Department  of 

Justice,   member  Central  Committee 

American  Red  Cross,  339 
Solicitor  of  the  Navy,  duties  of,  224 
South  Africa,  Boy  Scout  idea  originated  in, 

347 

Red  Cross  shipments  to  prisoners  in,  340 
South  Carolina  Naval  Militia,  number  of 

officers  and  men,  282 
South  Dakota  State  College  of  Agriculture, 

Army  officer  detailed  at,  199 
Schools  for  bakers  and  cooks,  180 
School  of  Fire  for  Field  Artillery.  Ft.  Sill, 

149,  180,  182 

School  of  Musketry,  Ft.  Sill,  181 
Schriver,  Sergeant  Ollie  M.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 

Schwandt,  Lieutenant  Gustave,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  332 


402 


INDEX 


Scientific   management   in   Ordnance   De- 
partment, 93 

Scott,  Major  General  Hugh  L.,  mission  on 
Mexican  border,  44 

Scouts  and   battle  cruisers  recommended 
by  General  Board  of  the  Navy,  240 

Scriven,  Brigadier  General  George,  P.,  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  97 

Seacoast  defenses,  importance  of,  88 
report  on,  45 

Seacoast  torpedo  vessels,  a  new  classifica- 
tion, 303 

Seal   fisheries   patrolled   by  Coast   Guard 
service,  324 

Searchlights  for  coast  defense,  163 
range  of  illumination,  165 

Secretary  of  State,  a  member  of  Central 
Committee  American  Red  Cross,  339 

Secretary  of  the  Navy,  duties  of,  223 

Secretary  of  War,  Colors  of,  37 
duties,  33 
relation  to  the  Army,  26 

Semi-military  organizations,  379 

Serbian  Anti-typhus  campaign,  American 
Red  Cross,  341 

Serbian  Balkan-Turkish  Balkan,  Red  Cross 
relief,  341 

Service  school  detachments,  Army  peace 
strength,  28 

Service  Schools,  Army,  180 

Sewanee  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  200 

Shattuck  School,  Army  officer  detailed  at, 
200 

Sherman,  General  William  Tecumseh,  in- 
augurated Army  service  schools,  182 

Siberia,  Red  Cross  shipments  to   prisoners 
in,  340 

Siege  howitzers  of  Germany  and  Austria, 
150 

Signal  Corps,  organization  and  duties,  97 
peace  strength,  28 
Aviation  School,  San  Diego,  181 

Signal  lantern,  use  of,  101 

Signal  School,  Ft.  Leavenworth,  98 

Signaling,  International  Code,  126 

Signaling,  methods  of,  101 

Sixteen-mch  gun,  range  and  cost,  93 
satisfactory  test  of,  256 

Smith,  Corporal,  hydroaeroplane  record,  106 

Smith,  Sergeant  Stanley,  record  national 
rifle  competition,  332 

Smokeless   powder,    amount   produced    at 
Naval   powder  factory,  and  cost,  257 
weight  of  charge,  cost,  etc.,  159 

Smuggling,    prevented    by    Coast    Guard 
service,  324 

Sports   and   athletic   contests,   Army   and 
Navy,  362 

Springfield   Armory,   location   and    manu- 
factures, 91 

Springfield  rifles  issued  to  rifle  clubs,  329 

Sprue,  cause  of,  71 

Staff  Bureaus  of  War  Department,  39 

State  College  of  Washington,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  200 

State   University   of   Iowa,    Army   officer 
detailed  at,  199 

Statesman  and  soldier,  coordinate  relation- 
ship of,  6 


Staunton  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 

Stevens,  Lieutenant  Orville  O.,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  333 
Stewart,  Sergeant  James  S.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 

Stimson,  Secretary  of  War,  report  on  Mili- 
tary prisons,  59 

Storekeeping  operations,  Naval,  268 
Strauss,    Rear   Admiral   Joseph,   Chief  of 

Bureau  of  Ordnance,  255 
Strength   in   peace   and   war  of  principal 

powers.  11,  13,  15,  17 
Strength  of  Engineer  units,  80 
Strength  of  Regular  Army,  31 
Students'   Military  instruction  camp,   47, 

378 

Sub-calibre  practice  with  large  guns,  161 
Submarine  F— t  salvaged  at  Honolulu,  261 
Submarine  and  submersible,  compared,  308 
Submarine  defense  of  harbors,  167 
Submarine,  destruction  of   British  cruisers 

by,  off  Heligoland,  308 
Submarines,  attached  to  Fleet,  218 
construction  and  operation,  309 
designs  prepared  by  Bureau  of  Construc- 
tion and  Repair,  260 
extra  pay  for  seamen  on,  310 
history  of,  307 
hygienic  conditions  of,  279 
undue  weight  attached  to  their  value, 

238,  239 

Submarine  mine.    See  also  Torpedo. 
Submarine  mines  in  coast  defense,  167 
planting  of,  169 

provision  for,  by  Endicott  Board,  156 
urgent  need  of,  46 

Submersible  and  submarine,  compared,  308 
Supply  Company,  Field  Artillery,  strength 

and  organization,  146 
Supply  Company,  Infantry,  strength  and 

organization,  124 
Surgeon   General    of   the   Army,   member 

Central    Committee    American    Red 

Cross,  341 
Surgeon   General    of   the    Navy,    member 

Central    Committee    American     Red 

Cross,  339 
Surgeons  sent  to  European  War  Zone  by 

Red  Cross,  341 
Sumner,  transport,  377 
Syria,  Red  Cross  shipment  to,  341 
Tacoma,  Wash.,  business  men's  camp  of 

instruction,  210 
Taft,  Hon.   William  H.,  Chairman  Central 

Committee  American  Red  Cross,  339 
first  Civil  Governor,  Philippine  Islands, 

112 

Taft  Board  appointed,  156 
Taliaferro,  Lieut.  W.  R.,  aviation  record, 

106 

Tallahassee,  monitor,  303 
Target  practice.     See  Rifle  Practice. 
Target  practice  camp  at  Mount  Gretna,  207 
Taylor,  Admiral  D.  W.,  Chief  constructor. 

Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair, 

259,260 
Telegraph  superior  to  telephone  on  firing 

Tine,  99 
Telephone  and  telegraph  field  service,  99 


INDEX 


403 


Tennessee  Military  Institute,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Tentage,  annual  cost,  64 
Texas  Naval  Militia,  number  of  officers  and 

men,  282 

Thayer,    Major   Sylvanus,    early   superin- 
tendent U.  S.  Military  Academy,  188 
The  Citadel,  Charleston,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 
Thompson,    Miss    Dora,    Superintendent 

Army  Nurse  Corps,  74 
Time  furnished  by  radio  stations,  250 
Titanic,  iceberg  fields  patrolled  since  loss  of, 

323 

Red  Cross  relief,  341 
Tonopah,  monitor,  303 
Torpedo,  as  Naval  weapon,  168 
Torpedo.     See  also  Submarine  mine. 
Torpedo  School,  Newport,  253 
Torpedoes,  first  use  of,  307 
for  submarines,  309 
Russo-Japanese  War,  308 
number  ordered  from  private  factories 

and  Naval  torpedo  factories,  257 
Toucey,  Isaac,  resigns  as  Secretary  of  the 

Navy,  215 
Trade  schools,  for  enlisted  men,  363 

U.  S.  Navy,  253 
Training  camps  authorized,  30 

for  college  students,  203 
Training  courses  for  Boy  Scouts  work,  354 
Training  in  Citizen  Army,  Navy,  and  Cadet 

Corps,  367,  368 
Training  schools  for  officers  and  enlisted 

men,  181 
Training  stations  for  enlisted  men,  Naval, 

253 

Transport  of  troops  oversea,  7 
Transport  service,  details  of,  64 
Transports,  ships  available  as,  64 
Trenches,  how  constructed,  86 
Tressider,    Captain,    English    inventor   of 

process  for  hardening  armor  plate,  302 
Troops,   general   distribution   in  strategic 

areas,  20 
Trophies  for  competition  by  Naval  Militia, 

285 

Trophy,  national  rifle  team  match,  330 
Tropical  diseases,  study  of,  71 
Trucks,   automobile,   available   for  trans- 
port service,  65 
Tuberculosis  Hospital,  Los  Animas,  Col., 

278 

Tuberculosis  rate  in  Navy  reduced,  278 
Turkey,  Red  Cross  shipments  to,  340 
Tutuila,  Samoa,  health  department,  281 
under  jurisdiction  of  Bureau  of  Insular 

Affairs,  110 
Typhoid  cases  in  Navy  reduced  to  negligible 

quantity,  277 

Typhoid  fever,  checked  in  Army,  71,  78 
Uniform  of  female  nurses,  74 
United  States,  peace  and  war  strength,  11, 

13,  15,  17 
U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  180, 

181,  185 

Academic  Departments,  196 
Cadets,  how  appointed,  188 
Corps  of  Cadets  to  be  increased,  188 
examinations  for  admittance,  190 


U.  S.  Military  Academy,  Graduations,  197 
history,  186 

Military  education  and  training,  194 
pay  of  Cadets,  193 
the  working  organization,  196 
total  number  graduates,  197 
uniforms  and  cost,  193 
U.   S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis.      See 

Ntisal  Academy. 

Universal  service,  necessity  of,  3 
University  of  Arizona,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 

University  of  Arkansas,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

University  of  California,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

Boy  Scout  training  courses  at,  354 
University  of  Florida,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 
University  of  Georgia,  Army  officer  detailed 

University  of  Idaho,  Army  officer  detailed 
at,  199 

University  of  Illinois,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  199 
field  battery,  maintained  by,  153 

University  of  Maine,  Army  officer  detailed 
at,  199 

University  of  Minnesota,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 
field  battery  maintained  by,  153 

University  of  Missouri,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

University  of  Nebraska,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

University  of  Nevada,  Army  officer  detailed 
at,  199 

University  of  Notre  Dame,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  199 

University  of  Porto  Rico,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

University  of  Tennessee,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  199 

University  of  Texas,  Boy  Scout  training 
courses  at,  354 

University  of  the  Philippines,  1 19 

University  of  Vermont,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

University  of  Virginia,  Boy  Scout  training 
courses  at,  354 

University  of  Washington,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

University  of  Wyoming,  Army  officer  de- 
tailed at,  200 

Universities,  maintaining  field  batteries,' 153 

Vaccine  treatment  for  typhoid  fever,  78 

Valparaiso  earthquake,   Red  Cross  relief, 
for,  341 

Vans  Agnew,  Capt.  Rob't,  on  equitation,  137 

Vedder,  Captain,   researches  in  beri   beri 
disease,  72 

Vesuvius  earthquake,  Red  Cross  relief  for, 
341 

Veterinary  Corps,  formation,  73 

Virginia  Military   Institute,   Army  officer 
detailed  at,  200 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  200 


404 


INDEX 


Volunteer  service,  officers  qualified  for,  50 

Volz,  Sergeant  Edwin  A.,  record  national 
rifle  competition,  333 

Walling,  Lieutenant  Guy  N.,  record  na- 
tional rifle  competition,  332 

Walter  Reed  General  Hospital,  Washing- 
ton, 78 

War  College  and  Army  Service  Schools, 
180.  183,  184 

War  College  Naval,  Newport,  230 

War  Department,  cost  of  maintaining,  32 

War  game  for  Coast  Artillery  officers,  163 

Warrant  officers,  number  obtaining  com- 
missions, 228 

Wars,  American,  cost  of,  32 

Warships,  in  silhouette,  304,  305 

speed  in  proportion  to  horsepower,  298 
types  of,  298 

Washington,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
radio  station  at,  248 

Washington,   George,    favoring  establish- 
ment of  Military  Academy,  185, 186, 187 
on  Naval  preparedness,  213 

Washington    Naval    Militia,    number    of 
officers  and  men,  282 

Water  bag  for  field  service,  75 

Watertown  Arsenal,   location  and  manu- 
factures, 91 

Watervliet   Arsenal,   location   and   manu- 
factures, 91 

Weaver,  Major  General  E.  M.,  Chief  of 
Coast  Artillery,  155 

Wells,  Gideon,  Secretary  of  Navy  (1861), 
215 

Wenonah  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  201 

Wentworth  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 
detailed  at,  200 

West  Point  Cadets,  how  appointed,  188 

West  Point  Military  Academy.    See  U.  S. 
Military  Academy 


West    Texas    Military    Academy,    Army 

officer  detailed  at,  200 
West    Virginia    University,    Army    officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Western  Military  Academy,  Army  officer 

detailed  at,  200 
Wilson,  President,  Flag  Day  proclamation, 

383 

president  Red  Cross  Society,  339 
Wilberforce  University,  Army  officer  de- 

tailed at,  199 
Wind  tunnel  for  testing  aeroplane  models, 

261 

Winthrop,  Md.,  Marines  stationed  at,  315 
Wire  company,  organization  and    duties, 

99 

Wireless  telegraphy  in  field  service,  99 
Wireless  telegraphy.    See  also  Radio  tele- 


graphy. 
irele 


Wireless  telephony  perfected,  231 
Wireless  telephony.    See  also  Radio  tele- 

phony. 
Wood,  Major  General  Leonard,  work  in 

organizing  training  camps,  203 
Woods,  Corporal   Wesley   H.,   record   na- 

tional rifle  competition,  333 
Women  as  Army  nurses,  74 
Women's  camps  for  Military   instruction, 

210 
Wooten,  Sergeant  Elmer  V.,  record  national 

rifle  competition,  332 
Wright  Brothers'  aid  in  aviation,  103 
Xavier  High  School,  Army  officer  detailed 

at,  200 
Yager,   Hon.  Arthur,  Governor  of  Porto 

Rico,  120 
Yale  University,  field  batteries  maintained, 

by,  153 
Yeoman  Schools,  Newport  and  San  Fran- 

cisco, 254 
Zeppelins  in  war,  108 


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